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NICOLAI    ANDREJEVITCH    RIMSKY  -  KORSAKOFF. 

(See  page  2i>i) 


Modern  Com- 
posers of  Europe 

Being  an  account  of  the  most  recent  musical 
progress  in  the  various  European  nations,  with 
some  notes  on  their  history^  and  critical  and 
biographical  sketches  of  the  contemporary  musi- 
cal leaders  in  each  country  jt  jk  jt  jt  jt, 

By 
ARTHUR    ELSON 

Author   of  "Woman's  Work   in   Music,"   "A   Critical 
History  of  Opera,"  etc. 

Illustrated 


BOSTON 
L.    C*   PAGE 


^         >         ^ 
COMPANY 

Publishers 


Copyright,  1904 
BY  L.  C.  PAGE  &  COMPANY 

(INCORPORATED) 
All  rights  reserved 


Second  Impression,  October,  1907 
Fifth  Impression,  January,  1914 


0  ^  £  I  £  G    fc  I  fU    K  /•  S 

• 

THE  COIX3NIAL  PflESS 
C.  H.  8IMONDS  &  CO.,  BOSTON,  U.  S.  A. 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER 

I.     RICHARD  STRAUSS 

II.  GERMAN  TONE -POETS  AND  SYMPHONISTS      .      27 

III.  GERMAN  OPERA  COMPOSERS    ....       60 

IV.  BOHEMIANS  AND  OTHERS                                          91 

V.  THE  ELDER  FRENCHMEN          .        •        •        •     US 

VI.  THE  FRENCHMEN  OF  TO-DAY         .        .        .     137 

VII.     ITALY l6° 

VIII.     THE  NETHERLANDS l84 

IX.     ENGLAND 203 

X.  THE  NORTHERN  COUNTRIES    .        .        .        .224 

XI.  THE  NATIONAL  RUSSIANS        .        .        •        .246 

XII.     THE  NEW  RUSSIANS z67 

IMDEX .285 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


PACK 

NICOLAI    ANDREJEVITCH    RIMSKY  -  KORSAKOFF    (See 

page  261) Frontispiece 

RICHARD  STRAUSS 6 

SlEGMUND  VON  HAUSEGGER 28 

GUSTAV  MAHLER -34 

FELIX  WEINGARTNER .38 

SIEGFRIED  WAGNER 80 

HUGO  WOLF 86 

BEDRICH  SMETANA 94 

ANTONIN  DVORAK 100 

CHARLES  -  CAMILLE  SAINT  -  SAE"NS       .        .        .        .116 
JULES  EMILE  FREDERIC  MASSENET    .        .        .        .122 

C£SAR  AUGUSTE  FRANCK 132 

VINCENT  D'INDY 138 

ALFRED  BRUNEAU 146 

GUSTAVE  CHARPENTIER 150 

DON  LORENZO  PEROSI 162 

PIETRO  MASCAGNI        .        .        .        .        .        .        .166 

GIACOMO  PUCCINI 170 

PAUL  GILSON 188 

GUILLAUME  LEKEU 190 

EDGAR  TINEL 192 

EDWARD  WILLIAM  ELGAR 204 

SAMUEL  COLERIDGE  -  TAYLOR 210 

EDWARD  GERMAN 218 

vii 


Viii  LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGB 

'EDWARD  HAGERUP  GRIEG 224 

JEAN  SIBELIUS 244 

MILY  ALEXEJEVITCH  BALAKIREFF       ....  250 

CESAR  ANTONOVITCH  Cui 252 

MODEST  PETROVITCH  MOUSSORGSKY  .        .    -^ssStf  2& 

ALEXANDER  PORPHYRJEVITCH  BORODIN      .        .        .  258 

ALEXANDER  CONSTANTINOVITCH  GLAZOUNOFF  .        .  270 

ANTON  STEPANOVITCH  ARENSKY        ....  272 


LIBRARY 

HOSPUAL 


MODERN   COMPOSERS   OF 
EUROPE 

CHAPTER  I. 

RICHARD     STRAUSS 

IN  the  latter  part  of  the  nineteenth  century  the 
musical  world  was  overshadowed  by  one  of  the  few 
great  geniuses  that  the  art  has  produced,  —  Richard 
Wagner.  It  seemed  almost  as  if  he  summed  up  in 
his  works  the  whole  range  of  musical  possibilities,  — 
almost  as  though  he  had  reached  the  Ultima  Thule, 
beyond  which  no  further  progress  was  possible.  He 
towered  above  his  fellows  like  a  veritable  giant, 
and  he  stood  as  an  apparently  unapproachable  ex- 
ponent of  the  school  which  he  himself  had  founded 
and  forced  upon  the  public. 

In  the  elder  days,  Bach  exemplified  by  his  works 
all  that  was  greatest  in  the  polyphony  of  the  six- 


2  MODERN  COMPOSERS   OF  EUROPE 

teenth  and  seventeenth  centuries,  transfusing  it  with 
the  lasting  vigour  of  his  own  genius.  Then  came  the 
era  of  homophony,  of  melody  supported  by  chords, 
of  a  form  that  depended  on  clear-cut  themes  and 
judicious  contrasts  rather  than  on  intricate  inter- 
weaving of  parts.  Handel,  Haydn,  and  Mozart 
built  up  this  school,  and  the  classical  period  reached 
its  zenith  in  the  works  of  Beethoven.  Here  we  may 
find  another  climax  of  the  art,  and  no  less  a  man  than 
Robert  Franz  has  expressed  his  belief,  not  only  by 
words,  but  by  his  own  deeds  in  the  musical  arena, 
that,  after  Beethoven,  no  one  should  attempt  the 
larger  forms.  Yet  the  melody  of  Schubert,  the 
grace  of  Mendelssohn,  and  the  deeper  emotion  of 
Schumann  are  prized  to-day,  in  spite  of  such  a 
sweeping  dictum. 

Then  came  a  newer  school  again,  this  time  making 
radical  departures  from  form.  Wagner  has  long 
stood  as  the  founder  of  this  school.  Because  of  the 
publication  of  his  theories  in  literary  shape,  and  the 
controversy  which  they  aroused,  it  has  been  assumed 
that  he  invented  the  school  of  free  harmonic  modu- 
lations. The  reason  is  not  hard  to  find  ;  for  the 
new  style,  being  a  radical  departure  from  the  old, 
could  not  at  once  make  its  way  into  the  concert  hall, 
but  found  a  more  speedy  mode  of  gaining  a  public 
hearing  on  the  operatic  stage.  Thus  orchestral  form 


RICHARD   STRAUSS  3 

was  not  banished  at  one  stroke,  but  a  sort  of  neutral 
territory  was  found,  where  its  laws  were  set  aside 
and  something  else  adopted  in  their  place.  That 
something  else  was  the  principle  of  dramatic  unity, 
so  much  in  need  of  a  champion  because  of  the  baleful 
crimes  perpetrated  against  it  by  Rossini  and  his 
school,  —  at  least  in  the  opera  seria. 

It  was  in  the  proper  union  of  music  and  action, 
then,  with  its  accompanying  dogmas  of  Leit-Motiven 
and  endless  melodic  recitative,  that  Wagner's  truly 
marvellous  gifts  found  their  expression.  The  new 
aspirant  for  fame  could  now  sing  as  he  pleased,  un- 
trammelled by  the  set  form  of  the  older  masters. 
Walther  could  intone  his  lyre  with  the  surety  that  the 
world  would  sometime  grow  to  understand;  for 
the  step  from  diatonic  harmony  to  chromatic  modu- 
lation was  a  natural  one,  and  bound  to  come,  even 
if  it  came  slowly. 

Yet  even  at  this  time  there  were  at  least  two  men 
who  could  claim  to  have  introduced  the  same  style 
on  the  symphonic  platform.  Berlioz,  with  his  ex- 
perimental boldness,  had  announced  his  belief  that 
music  could  express  actual  ideas  far  more  closely 
than  the  public  dreamed  of.  His  Symphonic  Fan- 
tastique,  and  the  "  Childe  Harold "  symphony, 
actually  undertook  to  tell  a  story  in  tones,  and  were, 
in  large  measure,  successful.  Yet  here,  if  the  story 


4  MODERN  COMPOSERS  OF  EUROPE 

is  not  enacted  before  our  eyes,  it  is  placed  before  the 
audience  upon  the  printed  page.  The  other  bold 
pioneer,  the  founder  of  the  Symphonic  Poem  as  we 
know  it  to-day,  was  Franz  Liszt.  In  his  works  we 
see  the  form,  if,  indeed,  it  may  properly  be  called  a 
form,  assuming  its  present  shape  and  becoming  an 
orchestral  rhapsody  whose  main  outlines  are  suffi- 
ciently indicated  to  the  audience  by  some  general 
title  or  some  very  brief  explanation. 

Meanwhile,  the  name  of  Wagner  had  come  to 
dominate  the  world  by  sheer  force  of  genius.  The 
modulatory  style  had  only  recently  been  adopted, 
and  here  was  a  man,  it  seemed,  able  to  explore  and 
exploit  its  utmost  recesses  and  possibilities.  Small 
wonder,  then,  that  many  repeated  the  error  of  Franz, 
mutato  nomine,  and  asserted  that,  after  Wagner, 
no  one  again  could  attain  such  vast  heights.  Even  at 
present,  many  years  after  his  death,  the  world  still 
looks  with  amazement  on  his  truly  stupendous 
achievements.  Where  else,  even  now,  do  we  find 
the  fierce  power  of  the  Ride  of  the  Valkyries,  the 
fascinating  beauty  of  the  Magic  Fire  music,  the  com- 
pelling charm  of  the  Waldesweben,  or  the  ineffable 
human  tenderness  that  pervades  the  score  of  "  Die 
Meistersinger?  " 

But  granting  Richard  Wagner's  right  to  a  place 
among  the  few  real  masters  of  all  time,  this  was 


RICHARD  STRAUSS  5 

no  valid  reason  why  others  should  not  rise  to  great- 
ness. Yet  for  more  than  a  dozen  years  after  his 
death,  no  one  seemed  worthy  to  wear  the  mantle 
of  the  departed.  One  would  imitate  his  use  of  guid- 
ing motives;  another  would  rush  wildly  to  super- 
natural or  traditional  lore  for  a  gory  plot  to  be 
illustrated  with  still  more  gory  music.  At  last, 
however,  a  new  star  has  arisen  in  the  firmament.  In 
Richard  Strauss,  not  inaptly  called  Richard  the 
Second,  the  world  has  again  found  a  man  who  dares 
to  say  what  he  wants  in  his  own  way,  and  who  utters 
his  orchestral  convictions  in  no  uncertain  tone. 

Richard  Strauss,  to-day  reckoned  as  the  world's 
leading  composer,  was  born  at  Munich,  June  n, 
1864.  His  father,  Franz  Strauss,  was  first  horn- 
player  in  the  court  orchestra  of  Bavaria,  his  mother 
being  a  daughter  of  the  brewer  Pschorr.  Like 
Mozart,  Brahms,  and  many  another  prodigy,  the 
young  Richard  gave  proof  of  his  gifts  in  early  child- 
hood. Of  the  two  requisites  for  this  much-desired 
effect,  —  precocity  in  the  child,  and  a  musical  atmos- 
phere in  the  home,  —  both  were  present.  As  a 
result,  he  began  playing  the  piano  at  the  early  age 
of  four,  and  two  years  later  entered  the  arena  as  a 
composer,  his  first  productions  being  a  three-part 
song  and  a  polka.  These  immature  first-fruits  were 
followed  by  piano  pieces,  songs,  and  even  an  orches- 


6  MODERN  COMPOSERS  OF  EUROPE 

tral  overture.  In  the  manuscript  of  a  "  Christmas 
Song,"  belonging  to  this  period,  the  handwriting  of 
the  child  was  still  too  large  and  irregular  for  the 
limited  space,  and  the  mother  wrote  the  words. 

A  course  of  four  years  at  the  elementary  schools 
was  followed  by  eight  years  in  the  Gymnasium,  dur- 
ing which  he  continued  his  musical  outpourings  by 
scribbling  themes  on  the  paper  covers  of  his  books. 
His  more  serious  artistic  studies  began  at  this  time, 
and  in  1875  he  started  theory  and  composition  with 
the  court  Kapellmeister,  Fr.  W.  Meyer.  Among 
his  works  of  this  period  may  be  mentioned  a  chorus 
for  the  "  Electra  "  of  Sophocles,  several  songs,  an 
overture,  and  a  symphony.  In  1881  his  String 
Quartette  in  A  (Op.  2)  was  heard  in  public,  and  the 
symphony  was  given  a  few  days  later.  Two  years  of 
university  life  now  followed,  during  which  the  over- 
ture received  a  Berlin  performance. 

Before  the  end  of  the  year  1884,  many  of  Strauss's 
earlier  works  had  been  completed.  Among  these 
were  a  'cello  sonata,  a  violin  concerto,  piano  pieces, 
a  horn  concerto,  the  noble  piano  quartette,  and  the 
dignified  F-minor  symphony.  In  all  of  this  period 
the  composer  was  influenced  entirely  by  classical 
models,  —  Haydn,  Mozart,  Beethoven,  and  Brahms. 
A  setting  of  Goethe's  "  Wanderer's  Sturmlied,"  for 
six  voices  and  orchestra  (Op.  14),  shows  the  Brahms 


RICHARD    STRAUSS 


RICHARD  STRAUSS  J 

influence  plainly,  and  bears  some  general  resem- 
blance to  the  "  Ode  of  Destiny." 

A  fortunate  meeting  with  Von  Biilow  led  to  the 
composer's  appointment  as  Kapellmeister  and  assist- 
ant conductor  in  the  Meiningen  orchestra.  The 
decision  was  reached  at  Munich,  where  the  young 
Strauss  was  compelled  to  stand  before  a  small  orches- 
tra and  conduct,  without  rehearsal,  his  serenade 
(Op.  7)  for  thirteen  wind-instruments.  This  so 
pleased  the  veteran  leader  that  he  adopted  both  the 
composer  and  the  composition.  A  year  later,  when 
Von  Biilow  left  Meiningen,  Strauss  became  his  suc- 
cessor as  leader  of  the  efficient  orchestra. 

It  was  at  this  time  that  the  young  classicist  met 
Alexander  Ritter,  a  man  of  radical  tendencies  and 
intellectual  breadth.  This  new  friend  was  destined 
to  change  the  entire  career  of  the  composer,  and 
transform  him  from  a  strict  adherent  of  form  into 
the  freest  of  modern  musical  tone-poets.  Through 
Ritter,  Strauss  became  interested  in  the  music  and 
the  ideas  of  Berlioz,  Liszt,  and  Wagner.  Soon  to 
become  a  most  brilliant  conductor,  Strauss  now 
began  giving  his  attention  to  the  extreme  modern 
school. 

In  1886  the  Meiningen  post  was  given  up,  and  a 
trip  to  Italy  ensued.  On  his  return,  Strauss  gave 
the  world  his  impressions  of  that  country  in  the 


8  MODERN  COMPOSERS  OF  EUROPE 

form  of  a  symphonic  fantasie  entitled  "  Aus  Italien," 
and  it  is  in  this  work  that  he  first  showed  his  con- 
version to  the  newer  school  of  subjective  emotion- 
painting  in  free  form.  Four  years  of  conducting  at 
the  Munich  court  theatre  followed,  these  in  turn  be- 
ing succeeded  by  two  seasons  at  Weimar.  It  was  in 
the  latter  city  that  Strauss  became  the  recognized 
champion  of  the  most  modern  school  of  music,  and 
reached  the  full  maturity  of  his  genius  in  conducting 
and  composing.  Here  were  produced  three  of  the 
series  of  great  symphonic  poems  that  have  made  his 
name  famous  throughout  the  musical  world.  Of 
the  three,  "  Don  Juan "  was  first  published,  but 
"  Macbeth,"  dedicated  to  Alexander  Ritter,  wajs 
composed  a  year  earlier,  in  1887.  Both  were  fol- 
lowed by  "  Tod  und  Verklarung,"  composed  in 
1889. 

The  long  years  of  hard  work  told  on  the  young 
man,  and  in  1892  an  illness  of  the  lungs  declared 
itself.  This  necessitated  an  extended  trip  to  Greece, 
Egypt,  Sicily,  and  other  Southern  countries,  during 
which  the  invalid  devoted  himself  to  the  completion 
of  his  first  opera,  "  Guntram."  On  his  return  it  was 
produced  at  Weimar,  —  without  lasting  success,  but 
with  much  import  for  his  domestic  life ;  it  was  dedi- 
cated to  his  parents,  and  Pauline  de  Ahna,  who  took 


RICHARD  STRAUSS  9 

the  heroine's  part,  became  his  wife  soon  after  that 
event. 

The  Weimar  position  was  now  given  up,  and 
Strauss  returned  with  his  bride  to  Munich.  There, 
after  three  years  in  his  former  post,  he  became  chief 
conductor,  on  the  retirement  of  Levi.  At  this  time 
he  conducted  the  Berlin  Philharmonic  concerts  also, 
but  the  task  of  travelling  to  and  fro  became  too 
exhausting,  and  he  gave  up  the  Berlin  leadership, 
being  succeeded  by  Arthur  Nikisch.  In  1898,  how- 
ever, he  became  permanently  settled  in  Berlin,  as 
leader  of  the  Royal  Opera  in  that  capital.  In  recent 
years  his  fame  has  become  so  great  that  he  has 
received  many  acceptable  offers  for  single  appear- 
ances in  other  places.  These  trips  have  taken  him 
to  nearly  every  musical  centre  in  Europe,  from 
Paris  to  Moscow,  from  London  to  Madrid.  Bay- 
reuth  has  vibrated  to  his  baton,  and  Holland  has 
vied  with  Switzerland  in  giving  tribute  to  his  excel- 
lence as  an  orchestral  leader.  Even  more  recent  in 
date  is  the  American  concert  tour  made  by  Strauss 
in  1904. 

Personally,  he  is  most  informal  and  delightful, 
and  not  at  all  the  metaphysical  mysticist  that  some 
of  his  works  would  indicate.  His  domestic  life 
seems  entirely  filled  with  happiness.  His  wife  sings 
his  songs  in  public,  and  each  vies  with  the  other  in 


IO  MODERN  COMPOSERS  OF  EUROPE 

modestly  declining  the  applause.  At  home  he  is 
much  given  to  frolicking  with  his  boys.  He  has 
a  very  human  fondness  for  jollity,  and  it  is  reported 
that  he  even  likes  beer,  —  perhaps  out  of  respect  to 
his  maternal  ancestry.  One  of  his  favourite  pas- 
times is  the  formidable  German  card  game  of  Skat. 

Tall  and  thin,  he  seems  almost  fragile,  but  the 
numerous  quick  tours  to  his  credit  show  that  his 
wiry  frame  is  possessed  of  great  vigour.  He  con- 
ducts with  the  utmost  spirit,  and  his  excitement  is 
catching.  Many  who  had  heard  his  works  under 
other  leaders  called  them  involved,  obscure  in  spite 
of  their  great  conceptions,  and  often  lacking  in 
beauty;  but  under  the  inspired  and  inspiring  guid- 
ance of  his  own  master  hand,  everything  grew  clear, 
and  those  who  had  hitherto  shaken  their  heads  in 
doubt  were  now  ready  to  jump  from  their  seats 
and  shout  with  enthusiasm. 

Of  the  works,  which  many  claim  will  found  a  new 
school,  "  Guntram  "  was  followed  by  "  Till  Eulen- 
spiegel,"  in  1895,  while  a  year  later  came  "  Also 
Sprach  Zarathustra,"  followed  in  its  turn  by  "  Don 
Quixote."  Somewhat  later  came  "  Ein  Helden- 
leben,"  representing  a  year  and  a  half  of  work.  The 
one-act  opera  "  Feuersnoth,"  his  second  work  for 
the  stage,  appeared  at  Dresden  in  1901,  and  in  1904 
came  the  new  "  Sinfonia  Domestica." 


RICHARD  STRAUSS  II 

In  the  F-minor  symphony  Strauss  showed  himself 
a  thorough  devotee  of  strict  form,  and  a  devout 
follower  of  the  Brahms  lead.  Yet  the  work  is  by 
no  means  dry  or  abstruse,  but  displays  much  pleasing 
vigour  and  directness,  in  spite  of  the  composer's 
youth.  It  is  said  that  Strauss,  while  at  the  Hoch- 
schule  in  Munich,  was  walking  in  the  gardens  with 
two  comrades,  —  Horatio  W.  Parker  and  Ludwig 
Thuille,  —  when  one  of  the  three  suggested  that 
they  all  try  their  hands  at  writing  a  symphony.  If 
the  other  two  works  were  composed,  that  of  Strauss 
seems  the  only  one  ever  brought  to  public  notice.  Its 
dignified  allegro,  a  bright  scherzo,  with  unexpectedly 
romantic  trio,  an  expressive  slow  movement,  and  the 
elaborate  finale  are  all  effective,  giving  only  tran- 
sient glimpses  of  the  involved  style  of  the  later 
Strauss.  The  use  of  the  same  figure  at  the  beginning 
and  end  of  the  work  gives  it  a  pleasing  aspect  of 
unity. 

It  was  in  "  Aus  Italien  "  that  the  composer  began 
his  works  in  the  freer  style.  The  very  title,  "  Sym- 
phonic Fantasy,"  shows  that  the  classical  plan  is 
no  longer  followed.  There  are  four  movements,  to 
be  sure,  but  they  are  not  the  four  of  the  older  form, 
and  each  is  a  complete  tone-picture  in  itself. 
Strauss  now  adopted  the  idea  of  emotion-painting 
that  seems  to  underlie  nearly  all  modern  music,  and 


12  MODERN  COMPOSERS   OF  EUROPE 

by  means  of  a  brief  title  gave  the  hearer  a  clue  to  the 
general  meaning,  and  let  his  imagination  supply  the 
details.  The  first  movement,  "  On  the  Campagna," 
gives  a  vivid  picture  of  limitless  space  and  solitude, 
with  here  and  there  a  hint  of  the  pageants  or  the 
battles  that  the  great  Roman  field  has  witnessed. 
The  second  picture,  "  Amid  Rome's  Ruins,"  aims 
also  to  give  "  fantastic  pictures  of  vanished  splen- 
dour, feelings  of  sadness  in  the  midst  of  the  sunlit 
present."  The  third  movement,  "  On  the  Shores  of 
Sorrento,"  corresponds  nearly  to  the  symphonic 
scherzo,  while  the  finale  gives  an  animated  and 
brilliant  picture  of  "  Neapolitan  Folk-Life."  When 
this  work  was  first  brought  out,  it  appeared  abstruse 
and  meaningless.  At  present,  when  compared  with 
the  orchestral  spasms  in  some  of  the  later  works,  it 
seems  a  model  of  clearness. 

"  Macbeth,"  the  first  of  the  Strauss  tone-poems 
to  be  composed,  marks  another  important  advance 
into  the  field  of  pure  emotion-painting.  The  form 
is  now  that  of  the  symphonic  poem,  wholly  free,  with 
the  several  movements  absorbed  in  one  long  whole. 
The  orchestral  colours  are  laid  on  with  a  bolder, 
freer  hand.  First  comes  the  picture  of  Macbeth 
himself,  ambitious,  cruel,  yet  timid  at  heart.  This 
part  of  the  work  is  most  ably  developed,  but  a 


RICHARD  STRAUSS  13 

stronger  climax  comes  with  the  appearance  of  Lady 
Macbeth.  On  the  score  are  written  the  words,  — 

"  Hie  thee  hither, 

That  I  may  pour  my  spirit  in  thine  ear,    . 
And  chastise  with  the  valour  of  my  tongue 
All  that  impedes  thee  from  the  golden  round 
Which  Fate  and  metaphysic  aid  doth  seem 
To  have  thee  crowned  withal." 

This  baleful  utterance  has  inspired  the  composer 
to  most  magnificent  orchestral  expression,  and  the 
work,  like  many  of  its  followers,  can  be  made  into 
a  tremendous  tour  de  force. 

"  Don  Juan  "  is  founded  on  the  poem  of  Lenau, 
rather  than  the  old  libretto  of  Da  Ponte.  The  hero, 
no  longer  a  ruffian  adventurer,  is  here  depicted  as 
devoted  to  the  attractive  qualities  of  all  women, 
which  are  not  to  be  summed  up  in  the  individual. 
Don  Juan  becomes  an  arch  pessimist,  never  finding 
true  satisfaction,  and  willing  to  resign  life  itself  at 
the  end.  Restless  and  uncertain  melodies  are  heard 
in  the  opening  of  the  score,  followed  by  the  knightly 
theme  of  the  Don  himself.  Then  comes  the  first  love- 
episode,  perchance  with  Zerlina  as  heroine,  pictured 
by  attractive  and  enticing  measures,  but  ending  in  a 
chromatic  phrase  of  disgust.  Then  follows  a  more 
lengthy  episode,  with  a  new  theme  that  may  be 


14  MODERN  COMPOSERS  OF  EUROPE 

typical  of  the  countess,  but  with  the  same  unsatis- 
fied ending.  A  third  affair,  gentler  in  tone,  meets  a 
similar  close,  and  the  hero  rushes  forth  on  his  wild 
career.  He  flings  himself  into  the  carnival,  where 
he  may  enjoy  wine  and  woman  to  the  full;  nor  is 
he  temperate  in  his  potations.  A  ludicrous  imita- 
tive phrase  on  the  glockenspiel  doubtless  indicates 
that  he  is  very  deep  in  his  cups,  while  an  organ-point 
of  twenty-four  measures  gives  intimation  of  the  sub- 
sequent state  of  coma.  Then  come  more  recklessness 
and  more  disgust,  followed  by  sudden  silence  and  the 
cutting  theme  of  a  trumpet  announcing  the  end. 

In  "Tod  und  Verklarung  "  (Death  and  Trans- 
figuration), the  composer  reached  new  heights  of 
power  and  beauty.  A  poem  is  written  on  the  first 
page  of  the  score,  depicting  the  quiet  of  a  sick-room 
while  the  exhausted  patient  sleeps,  his  renewed 
battle  with  the  powers  of  Death,  *a  review,  in  frenzied 
dreams,  of  the  sick  man's  whole  life,  and  the  final 
struggle,  with  the  apotheosis  that  conquers  even 
Death.  For  some  time  it  was  thought  that  the  poem 
inspired  the  music,  but,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  the  poem 
was  written  hy  Alexander  Ritter  after  he  had  heard 
the  music. 

Strauss  himself  laughs  at  those  commentators 
who  would  read  the  most  detailed  meaning  into  his 
works,  and  gives  only  general  outlines  for  guidance, 


RICHARD  STRAUSS  1 5 

yet  in  this  case  the  poem  fits  the  music  well.  It  is 
best,  however,  to  accept  with  hesitation  the  analysis 
of  William  Mauke,  who  goes  so  far  as  to  identify 
two  distinct  fever-themes.  Judged  from  a  musical 
standpoint,  the  work  may  be  divided  into  four  sec- 
tions. First  comes  a  largo  passage,  repressed,  brood- 
ing, sombre,  that  may  well  suggest  the  exhaustion  of 
the  fever-stricken  sufferer.  More  tender  passages 
may  indicate  regretful  thoughts  of  lost  youth.  The 
second  part,  harsh,  discordant,  powerful,  may  well 
picture  a  fierce  contest  with  the  powers  of  disease, 
ending  in  defeated  exhaustion.  Then  follow,  in  the 
third  part,  the  beautiful  themes  suggesting  memories 
of  the  morning  of  life.  The  tender  melody  of  the 
first  part  ushers  in  passages  of  joyous  enthusiasm 
and  noble  aspiration,  well  depicting  the  high  hope 
of  youth  and  the  glorious  achievement  of  manhood. 
Then  comes  renewed  struggle,  with  sudden  close, 
as  if  at  the  imperious  bidding  of  Fate ;  the  orchestral 
fury  of  the  sickness  recurs,  bringing  the  end  and  the 
knell  of  death.  The  fourth  part,  the  apotheosis,  is 
a  glorious  climax  of  triumph. 

In  "  Till  Eulenspiegel,"  the  subject  is  no  longer 
tragic,  and  Strauss  transfers  his  allegiance  from 
Melpomene  to  Thalia.  Till  (or  Tyll)  is  a  mediaeval 
rogue,  the  hero  of  an  old  German  tale.  A  wander- 
ing Brunswick  mechanic,  he  does  anything  but  tend 


1 6  MODERN  COMPOSERS   OF  EUROPE 

to  business.  His  madcap  pranks,  in  which  he  always 
comes  out  ahead,  have  become  immensely  popular 
in  Germany,  and  the  story  has  been  translated  for 
English  readers.  In  the  composition,  Strauss  has 
given  full  rein  to  his  fancy,  and  depicted  with  sure 
hand  the  fantastic  jokes,  the  sly  humour,  and  the  rol- 
licking disposition  of  the  graceless  rogue.  The 
work  is  in  rondo  form,  with  definite  themes  to  typify 
the  omnipresent  practical  joker.  These  themes  per- 
vade the  entire  score,  and  are  varied  or  developed 
with  the  infinite  skill  of  a  master  of  orchestral  irony. 
According  to  the  tonal  version,  Till  meets  a  speedy 
and  well-merited  end,  a  passage  not  wholly  unlike 
the  execution  in  the  Symphonic  Fantastique  of  Ber- 
lioz, —  but  in  the  story  his  usual  luck  attends  him, 
and  he  cheats  the  gallows  by  escaping  at  the  last 
moment. 

In  "  Also  Sprach  Zarathustra,"  Strauss  takes  his 
hearers  into  the  realm  of  Nietzsche's  mystic  philoso- 
phy. Zarathustra,  or  Zoroaster,  aims  to  teach  a 
deification  of  life,  the  "  Over-man,"  who  rises  be- 
yond good  and  evil  into  realms  of  joy.  First  comes 
a  picture  of  the  "  Hinterweltlern,"  or  dwellers  in 
the  Rear- World  of  narrow  humanity.  Their  yearn- 
ings are  portrayed,  their  joys  and  passions,  and  their 
sorrows  find  voice  in  a  tender  "  Grave-Song." 
Science  and  its  futility  are  represented  by  a  fugue  re- 


RICHARD  STRAUSS  IJ 

plete  with  chromatics.  Then  follows  a  passage  en- 
titled "  The  Convalescent,"  showing  the  defeat  of 
the  spirit  of  sorrow  and  trouble,  and  the  triumph  of 
joy  and  laughter.  Then  follows  the  wild,  chaotic, 
but  wonderfully  effective  "  Dance-Song,"  the  exul- 
tation of  the  "  Over-man."  Yet  the  success  is  not 
lasting,  for  at  the  close,  after  a  sudden  stroke  of  the 
bell,  comes  the  weird  "  Song  of  the  Night- Wan- 
derer," and  the  work  ends  mystically  in  two  keys, 
as  if  representing  eternal  doubt.  Strange  as  the 
piece  may  seem,  its  effect  is  one  of  vast  sublimity, 
and  Nietzsche's  wild  philosophy  has  been  translated 
into  tone  by  a  master  of  grand  orchestral  effects. 

"  Don  Quixote  "  is  a  more  definite  example  of 
tone-painting,  and  aims  to  portray  actual  events 
instead  of  emotions  or  ideas.  It  is  cast  in  variation 
form,  but  it  goes  utterly  beyond  the  limits  implied  by 
that  term,  and  the  thematic  material  sometimes 
assumes  wholly  new  forms  in  the  different  episodes. 
The  introduction  contains  the  motive  of  the  hero 
himself,  at  first  clear,  but  becoming  involved  in 
wild  tumult  and  strange,  illogical  harmonic  progres- 
sions as  the  knight  gradually  loses  his  sanity.  He  is 
represented  by  a  solo  'cello,  while  the  faithful 
Sancho  (oddly  enough)  appears  mostly  on  the  viola. 
The  journey  begins,  and  the  various  adventures  form 
a  set  of  more  or  less  clear  tone-pictures.  The  attack 


1 8  MODERN  COMPOSERS  OF  EUROPE 

on  the  windmills  results  in  a  disastrous  fall.  The 
flock  of  sheep  are  heard,  bleating  in  full  chorus  on 
muted  brass  instruments  until  put  to  flight.  The 
knight  and  squire  dispute,  with  some  feeling,  over 
the  glories  of  chivalry.  The  band  of  pilgrims  ap- 
proach, with  ecclesiastic  melodies,  only  to  be  dis- 
persed as  robbers.  The  knight's  vigil  is  depicted, 
and  a  meeting  with  the  commonplace  Dulcinea  of 
real  life.  The  ride  through  the  air  is  made  real- 
istic by  the  use  of  a  wind-machine,  a  large  wooden 
cylinder  with  a  serrated  edge,  which  is  ground 
against  canvas  at  varying  speeds.  The  voyage  in  the 
enchanted  boat  ends  in  capsizing,  the  two  peaceful 
monks  are  put  to  flight  as  base  magicians,  and  the 
Don  fights  his  fierce  battle  with  the  knight  of  the 
White  Moon.  The  finale  shows  the  returning  reason 
of  the  hero,  and  the  lucid  period  before  his  death 
is  marked  by  the  disappearance  of  all  the  distorted 
harmonies  and  the  return  of  the  theme  in  a  clarified 
form. 

The  next  great  work,  "  Ein  Heldenleben,"  is  a  bit 
of  autobiography  on  the  composer's  part.  "  There  is 
no  need  of  a  programme,"  Strauss  has  said.  "  It  is 
enough  to  know  there  is  a  hero  fighting  his  enemies." 
Yet  the  work  may  be  clearly  divided  into  six  well- 
marked  sections.  First  comes  the  hero  himself, 
portrayed  by  definite  themes  that  are  worked  up  to 


RICHARD   STRAUSS  1 9 

a  great  orchestral  climax.  Then  come  his  enemies, 
those  who  refuse  to  acknowledge  his  greatness, 
depicted  with  remarkable  irony  by  a  medley  of  cack- 
ling, snarling  figures  for  wood-wind.  The  hero's 
helpmate  is  represented  by  a  solo  violin,  and  in  this 
section  are  a  love-duet  and  other  music  of  most  bliss- 
ful sweetness.  Then  comes  the  hero's  battle-field, 
and  a  flourish  of  trumpets  introduces  a  fierce  orches- 
tral struggle,  ending  with  a  song  of  victory.  The 
hero's  works  of  peace  are  then  described,  and  the 
autobiographical  nature  of  the  composition  is  made 
evident  by  the  introduction  of  a  number  of  themes 
from  the  composer's  earlier  works,  "  Don  Juan," 
"  Eulenspiegel,"  "  Tod  und  Verklarung,"  and  the 
rest,  as  well  as  the  song,  "  Traum  durch  die  Damme- 
rung."  One  writer  asserts  that  there  are  twenty- 
three  reminiscences  in  all,  introduced  with  such 
consummate  skill  that  they  seem  component  parts  of 
the  piece.  The  final  section  shows  the  hero's  de- 
parture from  an  ungrateful  world.  The  work  is 
grandly  planned,  and  superbly  orchestrated,  but, 
like  many  others  of  the  composer,  it  lacks  something 
in  melodic  invention.  Strauss  paints  with  themes 
that  are  direct  enough,  but  commonplace,  often  even 
repellent.  Yet  his  use  of  them  is  wonderful,  and 
he  creates  unexampled  climaxes.  The  "  Helden- 
leben "  is  grand  in  conception,  but  its  harmonic 


2O  MODERN  COMPOSERS  OF  EUROPE 

ugliness  caused  one  of  his  critics  to  remark,  "  Das 
muss  ein  fiirchterliches  Leben  sein ! " 

A  more  recent  orchestral  story  is  the  "  Sinfonia 
Domestica,"  depicting  a  day  in  his  family  life.  It 
is  a  very  boisterous  day,  according  to  appearances, 
and  the  butterfly  of  domestic  bliss  is  broken  on  the 
wheel  of  orchestral  intricacy.  There  are  three 
themes,  one  apiece  for  father,  mother,  and  child. 
The  composer  has  given  out  no  complete  analysis, 
but  ingenious  critics  pretend  to  see  the  advent  of 
aunts  and  other  relatives,  and  the  comparison  of  the 
child  with  each  of  his  parents.  "  The  work  begins  in 
the  afternoon,"  said  Strauss,  in  conversation  with  the 
author,  "  and  lasts  overnight  until  the  next  morn- 
ing. The  final  fugue  represents  the  education  of 
the  child." 

In  the  field  of  opera,  Strauss  has  made  two  at- 
tempts so  far,  and  has  already  planned  a  third,  in  the 
shape  of  a  one-act  drama.  "  Guntram,"  the  earliest 
venture,  has  not  won  popular  success,  and  has  been 
practically  laid  aside  since  its  appearance  at  Wei- 
mar in  1894.  Guntram  belongs  to  a  mystic  fra- 
ternity aiming  to  convert  the  world  by  the  power 
of  song.  In  the  land  of  the  tyrannical  Duke 
Robert,  he  rescues  Freihild,  who  is  about  to  drown 
herself  to  escape  marriage  with  the  hated  ruler. 
Guntram  is  taken  to  court  by  Freihild's  grateful 


RICHARD  STRAUSS  21 

father,  but  his  praises  of  peace  and  love  serve  only 
to  anger  the  fiery  duke.  Robert  draws  his  sword 
and  rushes  upon  Guntram,  who  is  forced  to  kill  him. 
Though  all  agree  that  Guntram  is  blameless,  because 
he  has  acted  in  self-defence,  his  own  conscience  tells 
him  that  rivalry  in  love  was  his  motive,  and  to  main- 
tain the  standard  of  his  knightly  brotherhood,  he  is 
forced  to  renounce  Freihild  for  ever. 

"  Feuersnoth,"  a  later  work,  is  based  on  an  old 
Oudenarde  legend  of  a  scornful  maiden  who  is  pun- 
ished, for  her  pride,  by  transformation  into  the  only 
source  of  fire  in  town,  and  consequent  exposure  to 
the  eyes  of  the  multitude.  In  the  opera,  the  heroine 
is  Diemut,  daughter  of  the  Burgomaster  of  Munich. 
A  mysterious  stranger,  Kunrad,  comes  on  the  scene, 
and  the  pair  fall  in  love.  When  the  children,  accord- 
ing to  custom,  make  bonfires  through  which  true 
lovers  must  jump,  Kunrad  invites  Diemut  to  take  the 
leap,  and  kisses  her  before  the  crowd.  But  she 
resents  this  public  avowal,  and  plans  revenge.  As 
in  the  legend,  he  tries  to  ascend  to  her  room  in  a 
basket,  but  is  left  hanging  in  mid-air.  He  takes 
vengeance,  in  his  turn,  by  casting  spells  that  put  out 
all  fire  in  the  town.  He  utters  bitter  reproaches 
against  all  the  people,  and  their  needed  fire  is  re- 
turned to  them  only  through  Diemut's  renewed 
allegiance  to  her  lover. 


22  MODERN  COMPOSERS   OF  EUROPE 

The  orchestral  part  of  the  work  is  its  chief  glory. 
The  final  love-scene  and  climax  form  the  chief  con- 
cert excerpt  from  the  work,  but  the  gaiety  and 
mockery  of  the  populace  is  perhaps  the  most  success- 
ful touch.  The  colours  are  laid  on  in  broad  masses, 
with  a  sure  hand.  This  singular  opera  also  contains 
the  touch  of  autobiography,  and  Kunrad's  re- 
proaches of  the  people  are  made  to  indicate  clearly 
the  impatience  of  Strauss  with  critics  blinded  to  his 
genius,  even  as  they  had  been  to  that  of  Wagner 
before  him.  For  the  rest,  Strauss  himself  calls  the 
work  a  comic  opera,  and  its  legendary  nature  and 
popular  character  certainly  give  credence  to  the 
assertion.  Yet  its  irony  and  symbolism  make  it 
more  than  this,  and  although  some  regard  it  as  a 
huge  joke,  others  see  in  it  a  new  defence  of  a  new 
genius. 

What  shall  be  the  verdict  passed  on  the  works 
of  such  a  man?  That  he  has  genius  of  the  very 
highest  quality  is  undeniable.  The  world  had 
scarcely  grasped  the  full  meaning  of  Wagner's  rich 
orchestral  colours  when  this  quiet  young  iconoclast 
came  on  the  scene,  and  adopted  an  orchestral  lan- 
guage that  went  beyond  Wagner's  in  intricacy.  His 
technique  in  instrumentation  is  absolutely  unrivalled, 
absolutely  marvellous.  Although  the  forces  of  the 
modern  orchestra  are  so  great  that  many  men  are 


RICHARD   STRAUSS  23 

overwhelmed  in  the  effort  to  direct  them,  he  not  only 
wields  them,  but  plays  with  them  in  careless  mastery. 
The  musical  world  of  to-day  is  still  in  a  state  of 
astonishment  at  the  consummate  ease  with  which  he 
throws  the  great  masses  of  colour  upon  his  immense 
musical  canvases. 

But  back  of  it  all  arise  doubts.  Has  he  used  his 
colours  for  the  best  effects,  or  has  he  gone  astray 
in  the  labyrinth  of  musical  impressionism?  These 
great  outbursts  of  tone,  these  glorious  combinations 
of  instruments,  are  means  to  an  end,  and  not  the  end 
itself.  Strauss  uses  them  in  an  attempt  to  make 
music  tell  a  definite  story,  or  paint  an  actual  picture. 
"  Musicians  have  all  done  the  same,"  said  Strauss 
to  the  author ;  "  even  Beethoven  wrote  programme 
music."  "  Yes,  the  Pastoral  Symphony,  of  course," 
he  continued,  in  answer  to  a  question,  "  but  also  the 
ninth,  the  Eroica,  in  fact,  all  of  them."  The  use  of 
a  definite  programme,  or  character,  or  scheme  of 
events  for  the  composer  to  work  upon,  is  neces- 
sary to  him.  "  I  cannot  write  without  it,"  he  con- 
fessed. Yet  it  seems  almost  as  if  he  had  reached  the 
confines  of  his  art,  the  Ultima  Thule  beyond  which 
music  could  not  go.  Already  in  the  "  Sinfonia 
Domestica "  he  appears  to  have  overstepped  the 
sublime  and  become  ridiculous.  Yet  we  must 
hearken  to  the  musical  warnings  of  himself  and  his 


24  MODERN  COMPOSERS   OF  EUROPE 

friends,  and  remember  that  Wagner,  and  even 
Beethoven,  were  bitterly  assailed  in  their  early  years. 
It  may  be  that  the  next  generation  will  accept  these 
orchestral  intricacies  as  its  daily  bread;  but  it  is 
more  than  likely  that  a  more  rational  school  will 
follow  these  wild  though  Titanic  strivings. 

Not  all  the  music  of  the  world  has  been  of  the 
programme  variety.  The  suites  of  Bach,  uniting 
crystalline  beauty  with  their  polyphonic  character, 
tell  no  story.  The  symphonies  of  Haydn  and 
Mozart  charm  by  melodious  themes  and  well- 
balanced  contrasts.  Beethoven  himself,  Strauss  to 
the  contrary  notwithstanding,  did  not  always  aim 
to  elucidate  a  plot  in  his  lofty  measures.  Schubert 
sang  his  "  native  wood-notes  wild  "  with  regard  for 
nothing  but  their  ineffable  tenderness  and  beauty. 
Even  Schumann  and  Mendelssohn,  landscape  artists 
both,  have  left  us  music  that  is  attractive  without  the 
printed  explanation. 

After  these  composers  the  question  arose,  could 
we  do,  on  the  symphonic  stage,  what  Wagner  did  for 
opera  ?  The  answer  was  in  the  affirmative ;  Berlioz, 
Liszt,  and  now  Strauss,  have  proved  amply  that  a 
story  can  be  told  in  tones.  But  the  further  question 
now  confronts  us,  —  is  that  the  highest  function  of 
music?  Some  say  yes,  some  no.  It  is  not  impossible 
that  a  genius  may  yet  arise  who  shall  combine  the 


RICHARD  STRAUSS  2$ 

orchestral  mastery  of  a  Strauss  or  a  Wagner  with 
the  direct  appeal  of  Schubert  or  Mozart. 

That  Strauss  himself  can  write  music  of  exquisite 
charm,  is  fully  shown  by  his  songs.  Contain- 
ing many  modulations  that  sound  strange  at  first, 
and  some  that  seem  needless,  they  are  imbued  with 
an  exquisite  melodic  charm  that  is  all  the  more 
wonderful  in  contrast  with  the  unpleasing  character 
of  many  of  his  orchestral  themes.  Some  of  them 
are  priceless  musical  gems  of  the  purest  water.  In- 
volved though  they  seem  at  first,  they  gradually 
shine  forth  as  possessing  the  utmost  unity  and  direct- 
ness. Their  free  modulations  separate  them  from 
the  earlier  German  Lieder,  and  almost  make  of  them 
a  new  school ;  but  in  appealing,  irresistible  beauty, 
they  are  among  those  that  go  directly  to  the  heart 
and  charm  away  the  pain  of  the  world. 

The  vocal  works  of  Strauss  include  other  than 
solo  numbers.  Besides  the  hundred  songs  with 
piano,  many  of  which  have  received  also  an  orches- 
tral setting,  there  are  a  couple  of  sixteen-voiced 
anthems.  "  Enoch  Arden,"  set  as  melodrama  (i.  e. 
for  spoken  voice  and  piano),  is  not  a  mere  experi- 
ment, but  a  work  of  great  beauty,  in  which  the  com- 
poser has  too  modestly  limited  the  dimensions  of 
the  piano  part.  There  are  also  some  effective  male 
choruses  and  ballads  with  orchestra,  such  as  Uh- 


26  MODERN  COMPOSERS  OF  EUROPE 

land's  "  Das  Thai,"  and  "  Taillefer."  Taken  as  a 
whole,  these  show  that  if  Strauss  is  really  astray 
in  his  orchestral  paths  of  musical  ugliness,  he  has 
gone  in  that  direction  from  definite  choice,  and  not 
from  lack  of  ability  to  win  laurels  in  more  melodious 
fields. 


CHAPTER   II. 

GERMAN    TONE  -  POETS    AND    SYMPHONISTS 

IF  Richard  Strauss  is  young,  Siegmund  von 
Hausegger  is  still  younger.  He  was  born  in  Graz, 
Austria,  on  August  16,  1872.  He  was  a  member 
of  a  musical  family,  for  his  father,  Friedrich  von 
Hausegger,  gave  up  a  barrister's  career,  while  still 
in  his  early  years,  to  devote  himself  to  the  art.  The 
elder  musician  became  professor  of  theory  and  his- 
tory at  the  University  of  Graz,  published  various 
pamphlets,  such  as  "  Musik  als  Ausdriick,"  "  Wag- 
ner und  Schopenhauer,"  and  so  on,  and  contributed 
regularly  to  a  number  of  music  journals. 

Here  again  we  find  the  auspicious  combination 
of  keen  childish  intelligence  and  a  musical  atmos- 
phere, so  it  is  not  surprising  to  read  that  the  youthful 
Siegmund  showed  his  talents  at  a  very  early  age. 
In  his  school-days  he  amused  himself  by  composing 
"  musical  pictures  "  of  Hercules  and  Epaminondas. 

While  still  in  the  Gymnasium,  he  produced  a  Mass, 

27 


28  MODERN  COMPOSERS   OF  EUROPE 

which  was  given  in  concert,  under  his  own  leader- 
ship, in  May,  1899.  After  a  few  years  at  the  uni- 
versity he  devoted  himself  wholly  to  music,  studying 
score-reading  with  Degener,  and  composition  with 
his  father.  With  the  aid  of  the  local  Wagner  society, 
which  his  father  had  founded,  he  gave  excerpts 
from  "  Parsifal  "  and  other  works,  culminating  with 
a  complete  performance  of  the  "  Ring,"  which  he 
accompanied  on  the  piano  while  reading  from  the 
orchestral  score,  —  a  feat  that  astonished  the  audi- 
ence. 

The  piano  sonatas  and  chamber  music  of  his  boy- 
hood were  now  supplemented  by  a  piano  quartette, 
a  fantasia,  and  other  works.  In  the  orchestral  field, 
the  young  man  began  to  win  his  laurels  by  the  ballad 
"  Odinsmeeresritt."  This  was  followed  by  the  one- 
act  opera  "  Helfried,"  for  which  he  wrote  both 
words  and  music.  This  opera,  wholly  in  the  Wag- 
nerian  vein,  scored  a  decided  success  at  Graz  in  1893. 
Two  years  later  Siegmund  and  his  father  travelled 
to  Berlin,  hoping  to  interest  the  managers  and  public 
of  the  capital  in  a  second  opera,  "  Zinnober;  "  but 
their  efforts  were  in  vain.  The  new  work,  however, 
was  given  a  hearing  at  the  Munich  court  theatre, 
under  Strauss,  in  1898.  The  libretto  is  based  on  a 
fanciful  tale  of  Hoffmann,  and  the  title  role,  the 
dwarf  Zinnober,  is  not  sung,  but  spoken. 


SIEGMUND    VON    HAUSEGGER. 


GERMAN  TONE -POETS  AND  SYMPHONISTS    29 

A  number  of  songs  and  choruses  followed,  all  of 
unusual  merit.  Then  came  the  first  revelation  of 
Hausegger's  real  greatness,  in  the  form  of  his 
"  Dionysiac  Fantasie,"  a  symphonic  poem  for  full 
orchestra.  This  was  followed  by  a  still  more  im- 
portant work,  in  the  same  field,  —  the  symphonic 
poem  "  Barbarossa,"  first  performed  in  March, 
1900,  and  many  times  repeated  in  Europe  and 
America.  In  these  works  the  composer  achieved 
a  surety  of  orchestral  utterance,  a  full  grasp  of  in- 
strumental resources,  and,  above  all,  a  thorough 
mastery  of  melodic  charm  and  harmonic  richness. 
If  not  yet  the  equal  of  Strauss  in  variety  and  power, 
Hausegger  has  certainly  surpassed  him  in  direct 
loveliness.  A  single  work  does  not  create  a  new 
school,  but  "  Barbarossa  "  seems  a  step  in  the  right 
direction.  Its  beauties  are  clear,  sane,  unforced, 
and  when  the  frenetic  school  of  impressionists  have 
had  their  day,  this  composition  will  surely  come 
into  its  own. 

The  tale  of  Barbarossa  is  widely  known,  and  ap- 
peals strongly  to  the  Teutonic  heart.  The  old 
emperor,  like  many  another  legendary  hero,  from 
King  Arthur  to  the  Hussite  warriors  of  Bohemia, 
is  not  dead,  but  sleeps,  according  to  tradition,  in  the 
depths  of  the  mountain  Kyffhauser.  Whenever 
the  needs  of  his  people  become  too  pressing,  and 


3O  MODERN  COMPOSERS  OF  EUROPE 

their  burdens  too  heavy  to  be  borne,  Barbarossa 
will  awake,  and  lead  his  downtrodden  subjects  to 
victory  once  more. 

The  first  of  the  three  parts,  or  movements,  into 
which  the  work  is  divided,  represents  the  distress 
of  the  people.  Power  and  nobility  are  in  the  open- 
ing themes,  and  a  simple  grandeur.  There  are  not 
wanting  passages  of  more  appealing  tenderness,  of 
almost  pastoral  simplicity.  Not  yet  is  the  emperor 
needed,  for  the  exuberant  joyousness  of  the  music 
tells  us  that  all  is  still  well.  But  the  picture  fades, 
the  glad  opening  measures  are  transformed  into 
a  sombre  presage  of  coming  woe.  Wild  blasts  of 
pain  follow,  a  picture  of  universal  lamentation.  In 
vain  do  the  more  beautiful  themes  reassert  them- 
selves ;  the  tumult  breaks  out  afresh.  Suddenly  all 
is  hushed,  and  for  the  first  time  the  Barbarossa 
theme  is  heard,  as  if  to  tell  the  people  that  in  him 
is  their  only  hope.  Again  the  uproar  resounds,  and 
the  movement  closes  in  wild  confusion. 

Then  comes  a  picture  of  the  enchanted  mountain 
and  the  sleeping  king.  It  is  shadowy,  weird,  alto- 
gether mysterious  in  effect.  Soft,  delicate,  almost 
spectral  themes  are  woven  and  interwoven  to  pro- 
duce the  most  ghostly  effects.  Barbarossa  him- 
self is  suggested  by  his  theme.  There  are  strange 
horn-calls;  echoes  that  die  away;  drums  that  roll 


GERMAN   TONE -POETS  AND  SYMPHONISTS    3! 

in  subdued  intensity.  The  picture  of  the  emperor 
awakens  hope,  delight;  but  he  is  still  asleep,  and 
the  movement  ends  with  renewed  mystery. 

The  last  movement  represents  the  awakening  and 
triumph.  There  are  trumpet-calls,  faint  and  far 
off  as  from  the  depths  of  the  mountain.  All  is  sus- 
pense, expectation.  Again  the  trumpets  are  heard. 
At  last  the  emperor  and  his  knights  ride  forth,  with 
martial  fanfares.  Their  march  grows  more  and 
more  excited,  until  it  merges  into  a  battle-scene, 
terminated  by  a  climax  of  triumph,  and  a  long, 
happy  thanksgiving. 

There  is  but  one  defect  in  the  work,  —  it  is  too 
extended.  Its  rare  beauty  prevents  it  from  seeming 
spun  out,  but  it  would  become  even  more  effective 
if  reduced  by  a  third  or  a  quarter  of  its  extreme 
length.  If  Hausegger  uses  so  much  material  in  one 
work,  there  is  danger  that  he  may  find  little  of  new 
interest  for  later  compositions.  But  even  if  he  has 
produced  another  work  only  after  a  long  interval, 
his  "  Barbarossa  "  is  one  of  the  few  great  master- 
pieces of  the  modern  school. 

He  conducted  this  work  in  person,  when  it  was 
first  given,  at  one  of  the  Kaim  concerts  in  Munich. 
Its  beauty  may  have  aided  him  in  obtaining  appoint- 
ment as  assistant  conductor  of  that  orchestra,  but 
he  had  already  gained  considerable  experience  in 


32  MODERN  COMPOSERS  OF  EUROPE 

leading  the  operas  and  concerts  of  his  native  Gra2» 
He  remained  in  Munich  three  years,  leaving  that 
city  to  become  leader  at  the  Frankfort  Museum. 
At  one  time  he  thought  of  retiring  to  Graz,  and 
devoting  himself  wholly  to  composition,  but  this 
plan  was  not  carried  out,  and  he  is  still  in  Frankfort. 

One  of  the  great  events  of  the  1904  Tonkiinstler- 
fest,  which  he  led  in  that  city,  was  the  production  of 
a  new  symphonic  poem,  "  Wieland  der  Schmied." 
Wieland  is  the  cunning  smith,  who  makes  wonder- 
ful swords  that  can  cut  off  a  head  so  cleanly  that 
it  remains  in  place.  But  even  his  skill  does  not 
satisfy  him,  and  he  feels  a  wild  longing  to  scale 
heaven  itself.  From  the  celestial  regions  appears 
the  maid  Schwanhilde,  whom  he  would  claim  for 
his  own;  but  she,  terrified  by  earthly  passion,  re- 
tires to  her  lofty  abode,  and  leaves  him  to  vain 
lamentation.  A  second  part  of  the  work  shows 
Wieland's  despair ;  Schwanhilde  is  forgotten,  and  he 
is  as  one  dead.  At  last,  however,  her  image  revives 
him  with  a  hope.  He  uses  all  his  skill  to  forge 
for  himself  a  pair  of  wings  (third  movement),  and 
rises  aloft,  where  she  awaits  him.  In  the  last  move- 
ment, the  joyful  pair  leave  the  dull  world  behind, 
and  take  their  flight  to  regions  of  eternal  sunlight. 

As  conductor,  Hausegger  displays  amazing  gifts. 
It  is  the  usual  thing  at  present  for  an  orchestral 


GERMAN   TONE -POETS  AND   SYMPHONISTS    33 

leader  to  dispense  with  certain  scores,  but  the 
absolute  sureness  displayed  by  Hausegger  in  direct- 
ing from  memory  such  works  as  the  "  Don  Juan  " 
of  Strauss,  or  the  "  Dante  "  symphony  of  Liszt,  bor- 
ders on  the  marvellous.  His  manner  on  the  plat- 
form, however,  has  been  called  decidedly  ungainly. 
He  seems  almost  like  an  awkward  schoolboy,  but  his 
youthful  spirits  and  boundless  enthusiasm  are  sure 
to  infect  the  audience  as  well  as  the  orchestra.  He 
leads  without  pauses  for  applause,  except  at  the  end 
of  a  work.  He  aims  to  have  unity  of  effect  in  his 
programmes,  giving,  for  instance,  the  two  great 
Schubert  symphonies  in  one  concert,  and  symphonies 
by  Brahms  and  Bruckner  in  another.  Altogether, 
he  is  well  worthy  of  his  place  among  those  foremost 
few  who  are  teaching  us  the  worth  of  the  modern 
orchestra,  whether  they  play  on  it  or  write  for  it. 
Another  composer  who  won  his  first  laurels  as 
conductor  is  Gustav  Mahler.  He  was  born  at 
Kalisht,  in  Bohemia,  on  July  7,  1860.  His  early 
education  was  obtained  at  Iglau  and  Prague,  after 
which  came  a  period  of  further  development  at  the 
Vienna  University,  joined  with  two  years  of  study 
under  Bruckner  at  the  conservatory.  But  this  happy 
epoch  came  to  an  end,  and  Mahler  found  himself 
compelled  to  work  for  his  bread  and  butter,  to  use 

"^^^t^r .  *•'  v.  *•'     'T^^V 

his  own  words.  / 


34  MODERN  COMPOSERS  OF  EUROPE 

Like  many  other  struggling  artists,  he  began  his 
career  in  the  smaller  theatres.  His  quick  musical 
understanding  served  him  in  good  stead  during 
this  part  of  his  life,  for  he  had  to  lead  many  works 
which  he  had  never  even  heard  before,  and  he  found 
himself  thus  forced  to  give  his  own  interpretations. 
Prague,  Cassel,  Leipzig,  and  Pesth  became  in  suc- 
cession the  scene  of  his  labours.  In  1888  his  accom- 
plishments were  so  marked  that  he  was  selected  by 
Pollini  to  take  full  charge  of  a  Hamburg  theatre, 
and  he  soon  made  the  operatic  performances  of  that 
city  famous  through  Europe. 

At  this  time  his  activity  in  composition  began  to 
bear  fruit.  An  incomplete  opera,  "  Die  Argo- 
nauten,"  and  another  on  the  popular  subject  of 
"  Riibezahl,"  were  examples  of  a  formative  period 
in  his  work.  Then  followed  some  beautiful  vocal 
numbers,  —  a  fragrant  bouquet  of  songs,  with 
piano  or  orchestral  accompaniment.  "  Das  Klang- 
ende  Lied,"  a  more  ambitious  choral  work,  won 
decided  recognition,  and  gave  new  evidence  of  the 
composer's  growth,  but  it  is  in  the  symphonic  field 
that  Mahler's  genius  has  become  fully  evident. 

Mahler  is  sometimes  regarded  as  the  successor 
of  Bruckner,  with  the  distinction  that  he  succeeded 
where  Bruckner  failed.  The  struggles  and  partial 
successes  of  the  earlier  master  are  now  a  matter  of 


GUSTAV    MAHLER. 


GERMAN  TONE -POETS  AND  SYMPHONISTS    35 

history,  and  his  efforts  to  express  worthy  ideas  in 
the  symphonic  form,  if  not  always  effective,  have 
won  many  admirers.  Another  interesting  compari- 
son is  frequently  made  between  Mahler  and  Strauss. 
Both  are  adepts  in  handling  the  modern  orchestra, 
and  both  are,  in  large  measure,  devoted  to  pro- 
gramme-music. But  while  Strauss  has  developed 
the  symphonic  poem  and  the  single  movement  idea, 
Mahler  has  tried  to  broaden  the  symphony  itself. 
Like  Strauss,  he  gives  no  definite  analysis  of  his 
works ;  but  he  avoids  the  mistake  of  trying  to  make 
music  express  too  concrete  ideas.  He  is  a  tone-poet, 
in  the  highest  sense  of  the  word. 

His  second  symphony,  given  at  Vienna  in  1900, 
was  the  first  work  to  arouse  wide-spread  enthusiasm, 
and  this  only  after  a  partial  failure  in  Berlin.  It  is 
entitled  "  Ein  Sommermorgentraum,"  and  expresses 
a  pessimism  that  finds  its  cure  in  simple  faith.  The 
first  movement  depicts  despair  that  is  hardly  con- 
soled by  the  beauties  of  nature,  rejects  all  dreams 
of  future  glory,  and  is  untouched  as  yet  by  the 
religious  contemplation  hinted  at  in  the  closing 
choral.  Then  comes  an  idyllic  movement  ending 
with  the  same  unsatisfied  struggles.  The  third 
movement  shows  the  hero  seeking  the  haunts  of  men, 
and  becoming  disgusted  with  their  eternal,  restless 
bickering.  The  fourth  movement,  entitled  "  Ur- 


36  MODERN  COMPOSERS  OF  EUROPE 

licht,"  consists  of  an  alto  solo,  supported  by  orches- 
tra, with  the  following  words,  taken  from  "  Des 
Knaben  Wunderhorn  " : 

"  O  Roschen  Rot, 
Der  Mensch  liegt  in  grosster  Not, 
Der  Mensch  liegt  in  grosster  Pein, 
Ja  lieber  mOcht'  im  Himmel  sein. 
Da  kam  ich  auf  einen  breiten  Weg ; 
Da  kam  ein  Engelein  und  wollt'  mich  abweisen ; 
Ach,  nein,  ich  liess  mich  nicht  abweisen, 
Ich  bin  von  Gott,  ich  will  wieder  zu  Gott. 
Der  liebe  Gott  wird  mich  ein  Lichtchen  geben, 
Wird  leuchten  mir  bis  an  das  ewig  selig  Leben." 

After  this  movement,  which  is  worked  up  to  a 
beautiful  climax,  comes  the  finale,  at  first  an  orches- 
tral apotheosis,  but  ending  with  a  grand  chorus  of 
triumphant  faith. 

The  success  of  this  work  drew  renewed  attention 
to  Mahler's  first,  or  "  Titan  "  symphony.  These 
were  soon  followed  by  a  third,  entitled  "  Natur- 
leben,"  in  which  the  vocal  innovations  are  again 
employed.  This  time  the  work  portrays  a  pantheis- 
tic idea  of  the  exaltation  of  nature  and  life.  The 
first  movement,  wholly  separate  in  idea  from  the 
others,  again  represents  the  search  for  a  satisfactory 
solution  of  this  world's  life.  Then  follow  a  delight- 
ful minuet  and  a  charming  scherzando,  bubbling 


GERMAN   TONE -POETS  AND  SYMPHONISTS    37 

over  with  the  joy  of  nature.  The  fourth  movement 
introduces  the  usual  alto  voice,  this  time  with  the 
words  of  the  "  Brummglocke,"  by  Nietzsche.1  The 
fifth  movement  is  not  unlike  a  joyous  carol,  given  by 
a  boy-choir,  and  accompanied  by  an  orchestra  in 
which  the  tinkling  of  bells  plays  a  prominent  part. 
The  final  movement,  as  before,  is  an  apotheosis. 

Still  another  symphony,  depicting  the  joys  of 
immortality,  and  ending  with  the  chorus,  "  Das  ist 
das  himmlische  Leben,"  has  not  been  so  well  re- 
ceived by  the  critics,  in  spite  of  some  beauties  in  its 
earlier  movements.  In  this,  as  in  all  his  work, 
Mahler  shows  qualities  in  many  cases  the  reverse  of 
those  possessed  by  Strauss.  Where  the  latter  is 
involved  and  chromatic,  Mahler  has  aimed  at  the 
more  direct  effects  of  a  grand  simplicity.  His  clear 
melodies  and  delightful  rhythm  have  made  more  than 
one  critic  compare  him  with  Bizet,  though  the  like- 
ness is  not  fully  apparent.  With  this  thematic 
simplicity,  however,  goes  an  orchestration  that  is  of 

1  The  mystic  words  of  Nietzsche,  written  for  the  strokes  of  the 
bell  tolling  the  hour,  are  as  follows  :  One  !  —  O  Man,  take  heed  1  — 
Two  !  —  What  says  the  deep  midnight  ?  —  Three  !  —  I  have  slept,  I 
have  slept ;  —  Four !  —  I  have  awakened  from  a  deep  dream  ;  — 
Five !  —  The  world  is  deep  ;  —  Six  I  —  And  deeper  than  the  day 
showed  ;  —  Seven  !  —  Deep  is  its  woe  ;  —  Eight  I  —  Joy,  deeper  still 
than  heart-sorrow ;  —  Nine  !  —  Woe  bids  us  pass  away  ;  —  Ten  I  — 
Yet  all  joy  wants  eternity ;  —  Eleven !  —  Wants  deep,  deep  eternity) 
—  Twelve  1 


38  MODERN  COMPOSERS  OF  EUROPE 

the  utmost  modern  intricacy,  at  times  giving  ap- 
parent unclearness  to  works  that  often  show  true 
poetic  feeling. 

For  the  last  few  years  Mahler  has  been  conductor 
of  the  Philharmonic  concerts  in  Vienna,  as  Richter  s 
successor,  and  director  of  the  court  opera,  —  posi- 
tions which  he  still  holds.  His  rank  as  orchestral 
leader  is  of  the  very  highest,  and  his  notable 
achievements  in  composition  will  soon  make  him 
known  in  all  civilized  lands.  The  steady  and  con- 
sistent growth  shown  in  his  works  is  an  indication 
that  he  may  reach  even  greater  heights  in  the 
future. 

Another  orchestral  leader  of  world-wide  fame 
is  Felix  Weingartner.  He  was  born  June  3,  1863, 
in  the  Dalmatian  town  of  Zara,  where  his  father  was 
chief  of  the  telegraph  service.  On  the  death  of 
the  latter,  in  1868,  his  mother  removed  to  Graz, 
where  the  boy  began  his  musical  studies,  —  at  first 
with  her,  then  under  Dr.  Wilhelm  Mayer,  director 
of  the  Styrian  musical  union.  His  first  published 
works  were  three  groups  of  piano  pieces,  which 
appeared  in  1880.  In  the  next  year  we  find  him  deep 
in  study  at  the  Leipzig  conservatory,  where  he  won 
the  Mozart  prize. 

In  1882  came  the  first  meeting  with  Liszt,  whose 
lively  interest  led  the  young  student  to  settle  in 


FELIX    WEINGARTNER. 


GERMAN  TONE -POETS  AND   SYMPHONISTS    39 

Weimar  two  years  later.  Thus  began  a  lasting 
friendship,  marked  on  one  side  by  the  most  active 
sympathy  for  the  struggling  artist,  and  on  the  other 
by  the  greatest  reverence  for  the  renowned  pianist 
and  composer.  Weingartner  adds  his  tribute  of 
praise  to  the  wide-spread  adulation  of  the  Weimar 
master,  who  was  beloved  no  less  for  his  high  ideal- 
ism than  for  his  services  to  art.  Through  Liszt's 
aid,  Weingartner's  first  opera,  "  Sakuntala,"  was 
produced  in  the  Weimar  court  theatre. 

Not  blessed  with  wealth,  Weingartner  now  found 
himself  obliged  to  make  his  own  way,  and  adopted 
the  career  of  orchestral  leader.  A  year  at  the 
Konigsberg  Stadttheater  was  followed  by  two  at 
Dantzig,  during  which  a  second  opera,  "  Malawika," 
received  a  performance  at  Munich.  The  composer 
now  alludes  to  these  two  as  youthful  indiscretions, 
but  a  third  opera,  "  Genesius,"  dealing  with  Chris- 
tianity in  old  Rome,  though  not  well  received  in 
Berlin,  has  met  with  success  in  many  other  German 
cities.  Weingartner  had  profited  much  by  a 
thorough  study  of  Wagner's  "  Nibelungen-Ring," 
and  this  influence  is  plainly  evident  in  his  "  Orestes." 
This  is  a  later  work,  consisting  of  three  one-act 
music  dramas,  after  x^Eschylus,  —  "  Agamemnon," 
"  Das  Todtenopfer,"  and  "  Die  Erynien."  Wein- 
gartner always  writes  or  arranges  his  own  librettos. 


40  MODERN  COMPOSERS  OF  EUROPE 

Two  years  of  directing  at  Hamburg  were  marked 
by  friction  with  Von  Billow,  and  decided  disagree- 
ments with  his  successor,  Pollini.  They  were  fol- 
lowed by  two  years  as  court  leader  in  Mannheim, 
which  led  to  a  similar  position  in  Berlin.  Of  the 
troubles  in  the  lesser  theatres  of  his  earlier  days, 
Weingurtner  speaks  with  decided  disgust,  although 
he  admits  that  the  experience  was  of  great  value 
in  his  later  concert  career.  "  Through  these  en- 
gagements," he  writes  to  the  author,  "  I  became 
acquainted  with  the  wretchedness  of  the  lesser 
theatres.  The  salary  was  small, —  150  marks 
($37.50)  a  month,  for  seven  months  and  a  half, 
nothing  for  the  rest  of  the  year.  ...  In  Dantzig 
there  were  but  four  or  five  first  violins,  two  contra- 
basses, third-rate  singers,  a  miserable  chorus,  and 
no  chance  for  proper  rehearsals,  as  the  directors 
insisted  on  such  an  extensive  repertoire." 

The  harsh  criticisms  of  "  Genesius  "  in  Berlin, 
against  which  Weingartner  protested,  led  to  a  long 
series  of  attacks  upon  him,  ending  only  in  1896. 
Meanwhile  he  had  been  also  leader  of  the  royal 
symphony  concerts,  and  by  raising  these  to  their 
present  high  standard  he  won  his  first  recognition 
as  one  of  the  few  really  great  conductors  of  to-day. 
In  1897  he  was  compelled  by  nerve  troubles  to 
resign  his  theatrical  post,  and  since  then  he  has  won 


GERMAN  TONE -POETS  AND   SYMPHONISTS    4! 

fresh  laurels  as  leader  of  the  Kaim  orchestra  in 
Munich.  He  still  travels  to  Berlin  to  conduct  the 
symphony  concerts,  and  besides  this  makes  many 
European  tours,  sometimes  playing  in  chamber 
music.  His  recent  appearance  in  New  York  was  a 
personal  triumph,  over  which  he  expresses  himself 
as  highly  pleased. 

His  compositions  include  many  songs  and  piano 
works,  all  widely  popular.  In  recent  years  he  has 
produced  much  chamber  music,  notably  three  string 
quartettes  and  a  sextette.  In  the  orchestral  field 
his  two  new  symphonies,  though  displaying  great 
skill  in  thematic  treatment,  are  less  important  than 
the  symphonic  poems,  "  King  Lear,"  and  "  The 
Elysian  Fields."  The  former  is  a  musical  version 
of  the  well-known  tragedy,  displaying  much  dra- 
matic power.  This  was  the  work  chosen  by  the 
composer  in  his  American  appearance.  The  latter 
was  inspired  by  Arnold  Bocklin's  enchanting  pic- 
ture, "  Die  Gefilde  der  Seligen,"  and  is  marked  by 
great  beauty. 

Weingartner  has  written  several  pamphlets, 
among  them  one  on  "  The  Symphony  after  Bee- 
thoven." His  outspoken  ideas  are  well  calculated 
to  renew  discussion  of  the  symphonic  poem  and  its 
functions.  The  orchestral  works  of  Liszt,  as  well 
as  those  of  Strauss,  show  that  the  subject  must  be 


42  MODERN  COMPOSERS  OF  EUROPE 

one  that  is  well-known,  so  that  the  audience  may  fol- 
low the  musical  thought  without  having  to  read 
arbitrary  printed  notes.  Liszt's  great  pictures  — 
"  Dante,"  "  Tasso,"  "  Faust,"  and  the  rest  —  depict 
familiar  characters,  and  in  large  measure  explain 
themselves.  Mahler's  titles  give  a  broad,  general 
plan,  easy  to  grasp.  So,  too,  do  many  of  the  Strauss 
creations,  but  not  all.  In  "  Don  Quixote  "  the  pro- 
gramme grows  arbitrary,  while  the  "  Sinfonia 
Domestica  "  becomes  a  veritable  puzzle,  until  the 
composer  deigns  to  give  us  the  key.  If  he  wishes 
this  work  taken  seriously,  then  the  least  he  can  do 
is  to  invite  the  musical  public  to  spend  a  day  at  his 
home,  so  that  they  may  be  able  to  judge  the  com- 
position intelligently.  Hausegger's  "  Barbarossa  " 
is  at  least  a  well-known  legend,  and  Bocklin's  pic- 
ture, if  not  made  visible  to  every  concert  audience, 
may  still  be  described  in  print,  and  represents  a  sub- 
ject fraught  with  poetical  meaning. 

Bocklin  has  had  another  and  an  even  more  direct 
musical  tribute  to  his  paintings,  in  the  shape  of 
Hans  Huber's  second  symphony.  This  work,  which 
the  composer  intended  to  call  the  "  Bocklin  Sym- 
phony," aims  to  translate  into  tone  the  moods  sug- 
gested by  an  entire  series  of  the  artist's  canvases. 
Not  movements  merely,  but  themes  themselves,  are 
taken  to  represent  certain  definite  pictures.  Thus, 


GERMAN  TONE -POETS  AND  SYMPHONISTS    43 

according  to  commentators,  a  tender  theme  near  the 
beginning  of  this  musical  catalogue  typifies  the 
beautiful  meadow  scene,  "  Es  lacht  die  Au'  " ;  the 
scherzo  illustrates  the  fauns  and  satyrs  that  the  artist 
loved  to  depict;  while  the  slow  movement  is  in- 
spired by  the  "  Sacred  Grove,"  and  the  "  Hymn  of 
Spring."  In  the  finale  the  analyst  need  no  longer 
rack  his  brains,  for  the  musical  variations  are  each 
given  the  title  of  one  of  the  artist's  pictures. 

The  attempt  to  reproduce  in  tone  some  of  the 
great  compositions  of  famous  painters  is  certainly 
legitimate,  according  to  musical  standards.  Here 
there  is  no  question  of  any  involved  story,  needing 
a  detailed  plot  for  the  hearer's  use,  but  the  mere  title 
will  often  prove  sufficient  to  aid  him  in  threading  the 
tonal  labyrinth.  Many  examples  of  this  point  may 
be  found  in  the  works  of  Liszt,  whose  "  Hunnen- 
schlacht,"  after  Kaulbach,  and  "  Dance  of  Death," 
after  Orcagna,  preceded  by  many  years  the  works 
of  Huber  and  Weingartner. 

Hans  Huber  is  a  native  and  a  resident  of  Switzer- 
land. He  was  born  at  Schonewerd,  June  28,  1852. 
His  musical  studies  brought  him  under  Richter  and 
Reinecke,  at  Leipzig.  He  soon  obtained  a  promi- 
nent post  in  the  music  school  at  Basel,  of  which  he 
has  been  director  for  the  past  eight  years.  He 
numbers  among  his  important  works  two  operas, 


44  MODERN  COMPOSERS  OF  EUROPE 

"  Kundrun,"  and  "  Weltfriihling  " ;  many  beautiful 
works  for  voices  and  orchestra,  such  as  the  "  Nord- 
seebilder  "  and  "  Pandora  "  overtures;  a  violin  con- 
certo, two  piano  concertos;  and  three  symphonies, 
the  first  entitled  "  Wilhelm  Tell."  He  is  also  to  be 
credited  with  chamber-music,  songs,  choruses,  and 
organ  works.  He  shows  imagination,  and  some 
freshness  of  melodic  invention,  but  there  is  an  un- 
evenness  and  an  excess  of  ingenuity  in  his  compo- 
sitions that  prevents  their  being  classed  with  the 
great  works  of  the  preceding  composers. 

It  may  be  mentioned,  in  passing,  that  if  Switzer- 
land possesses  no  musical  genius  of  the  first  rank, 
she  yet  has  many  composers  who  deserve  at  least 
a  brief  notice,  and  who  may  do  excellent  work 
in  the  future.  Such  are  E.  Jaques-Dalcroze,  of 
Geneva,  who  tries  to  combine  modern  French 
tendencies  with  folk-song  effects;  Gustave  Doret, 
a  protege  of  Saint-Saens,  whose  "  Hymne  a  la 
Beaute  "  displays  much  passionate  strength ;  Rudolf 
Ganz,  of  Zurich,  whose  youthful  exuberance  is 
now  developing  into  more  mature  talent;  Otto  Bar- 
blan,  who  displays  much  originality;  and  Georg 
Haeser,  of  Zurich,  whose  choral  work  is  excel- 
lent. Prominent  in  chamber  music  and  lesser  vocal 
numbers  are  such  men  as  Fritz  Niggli,  Hermann 
Suter,  Richard  Franck,  or  Joseph  Lauber.  Edward 


GERMAN  TONE -POETS  AND  SYMPHONISTS    45 

Combe,  of  Geneva,  and  A.  Denereaz,  of  Lausanne, 
have  won  success  in  the  smaller  orchestral  forms, 
while  Lothar  Kempter,  of  Zurich,  has  produced  an 
effective  tenor  scena  entitled  "  Lethe."  But  it  is 
probable  that  all  these  men  would  receive  lesser 
notice  in  a  greater  country. 

An  attempt  to  give  modern  tone-painting  a  new 
application  was  made  by  Hans  Koessler,  whose 
symphonic  variations  aim  to  picture  the  different 
traits  of  Brahms.  Although  suitable  in  depicting 
world-famous  characters,  this  method  loses  much 
force  when  applied  to  less  prominent  subjects.  Even 
Beethoven's  third  symphony  seems  loftier,  when 
dedicated  to  the  unnamed  hero,  than  if  it  were  a 
personal  portrait  of  Napoleon,  with  every  self-con- 
stituted analyst  free  to  expound  its  meaning.  There 
have  been  various  attempts  to  picture  people  in  tone, 
but  the  best  have  been  interesting  rather  than  suc- 
cessful. Elgar's  most  recent  variations,  depicting 
some  of  his  friends,  are  frankly  little  more  than 
a  sly  joke  in  tonal  portraiture,  and  base  their 
fame  on  intrinsic  musical  worth.  After  lamenting 
the  death  and  burial  of  Brahms,  Koessler  aims  to 
show  him  as  friend,  as  lover  of  children,  as  wor- 
shipper of  nature,  as  humourist,  and  as  a  glorious 
example  for  all  to  emulate ;  but  the  composer  grows 
prolix  in  the  effort.  Hans  Koessler,  born  January  I, 

ST.  FRANCIS  SEMINARY. 


46  MODERN  COMPOSERS  OF  EUROPE 

1853,  at  Waldeck,  has  also  won  renown  as  teacher 
at  Dresden  and  Buda-Pesth,  and  has  brought  forth 
a  symphony,  a  violin  concerto,  a  good  cantata,  and 
many  lesser  works;  but  his  attempt  at  character- 
drawing  in  music  is  hardly  a  success,  and  even  the 
placid  Brahms  was  not  as  dull  as  the  variations 
would  make  him  out. 

The  name  of  Hugo  Kaun  should  be  of  especial 
interest  to  Americans,  because  of  his  long  sojourn 
in  this  country,  and  his  choice  of  American  subjects. 
Born  at  Berlin,  on  March  21,  1863,  he  received  his 
chief  training  in  composition  under  Kiel,  at  the 
Meisterschule.  After  serving  his  time  in  the  army, 
he  came  to  the  United  States,  and  in  1887  made 
Milwaukee  his  home.  There  he  founded  the  Man- 
nerchor  of  that  city,  which  gave  concerts  with  the 
Thomas  Orchestra,  and  there  he  composed  many 
important  works,  some  of  which  were  given  by 
Thomas  at  Chicago.  In  1902  he  returned  to  Berlin, 
where  he  is  now  devoting  himself  wholly  to  com- 
position. 

Kaun  numbers  among  his  works  two  operas,  — 
"  Der  Pietist,"  in  one  act,  and  "  Der  Maler  von 
Antwerpen,"  the  overture  to  which  was  performed 
at  Chicago.  A  great  festival  march,  dedicated  to  the 
American  nation,  was  also  given  there,  as  well  as 
the  symphony,  "  An  Mein  Vaterland,"  a  work  of 


GERMAN  TONE -POETS  AND  SYMPHONISTS    tf 

much  virility.  He  has  written  several  large  choral 
numbers,  notably  the  cantata  "  Normannenal> 
schied ;  "  also  about  sixty  songs  and  piano  works. 
A  "  Carnival  "  suite  won  much  success  at  Milwau- 
kee, in  1891.  During  the  same  year  an  early 
symphonic  poem,  "  Vineta,"  received  a  performance. 
His  works  in  this  form  are  clear,  tasteful,  and  de- 
cidedly effective.  "  Hiawatha  "  has  not  yet  been 
given  in  America,  but  "  Minnehaha,"  a  companion 
work,  has  received  decided  recognition.  The  third 
of  this  set,  "  Minnehaha's  Death,"  is  still  in  manu- 
script. Before  his  return  to  Berlin,  Kaun  won  a 
decided  triumph  in  that  capital  by  a  concert  devoted 
wholly  to  his  own  works,  and  his  new  "  Maria 
Magdalena  "  was  given  in  1904  by  the  Meiningen 
orchestra. 

At  the  head  of  this  well-known  concert  organi- 
zation is  Wilhelm  Berger,  a  native  of  Boston.  Born 
August  9,  1 86 1,  he  was  taken  to  Bremen  by  his 
parents,  afterward  studying  in  Berlin  with  the 
great  Kiel.  For  many  years  he  made  his  home  in 
the  German  capital,  where  he  devoted  himself  to 
composition.  In  1898  he  won  a  prize  with  his  set- 
ting of  Goethe's  "  Meine  Gottin,"  and  his  "  Gesang 
der  Geister,"  for  mixed  chorus  and  orchestra,  was 
also  well  received.  His  "  Todtentanz,"  an  earlier 
work,  received  a  Boston  Symphony  performance. 


48  MODERN  COMPOSERS  OF  EUROPE 

His  present  activity  in  conducting  has  not  made  him 
withdraw  from  the  field  of  composition. 

Another  important  name  familiar  to  Americans 
is  that  of  Georg  Henschel.  He  was  born  in  Breslau, 
on  February  18,  1850.  After  studying  there  and  at 
Leipzig,  ht  won  success  as  a  baritone  singer,  and 
in  1 88 1  he  became  familiar  as  the  first  conductor 
of  the  Boston  Symphony  Orchestra.  After  leaving 
this  organization,  he  founded  the  London  Symphony 
concerts,  and  became  professor  in  the  Royal  College 
of  Music.  He  has  composed  two  operas,  "  Friedrich 
der  Schone,"  and  "  Nubia,"  also  the  operetta,  "  A 
Sea  Change."  His  many  beautiful  songs  have  been 
made  familiar  by  the  concerts  given  by  his  American 
wife,  with  his  aid,  and  her  loss  inspired  his  noble 
Requiem. 

Familiar  to  many  Americans  by  reason  of  his 
long  career  as  a  teacher  is  Karl  Reinecke,  who  was 
born  at  Altona,  on  June  23,  1824.  During  his  youth 
he  was  famous  as  a  pianist,  and  made  many  tours. 
His  teaching  began  in  1851,  at  Cologne,  and  has 
been  carried  on  at  Barmen,  Breslau,  and  finally 
Leipzig.  He  was  at  one  time  conductor  of  the 
famous  Gewandhaus  concerts.  His  long  list  of 
compositions  includes  two  Masses,  three  symphonies, 
five  overtures,  the  opera,  "  King  Manfred,"  several 
lighter  dramatic  works,  four  concertos,  a  number  of 


GERMAN  TONE -POETS  AND  SYMPHONISTS    49 

cantatas,  and  much  children's  music,  all  delightfully 
fresh  and  melodious. 

Famous  in  Germany,  if  not  too  well  known  out- 
side of  that  country,  is  Jean  Louis  Nicode.  He 
was  born  August  12,  1853,  and  is,  therefore,  some- 
what older  than  many  of  the  modern  tone-poets. 
After  tuition  from  his  father,  Kullak,  and  Kiel  at 
Berlin,  he  became  piano  professor  in  the  Dresden 
Royal  Conservatory.  His  influence  has  become  ex- 
tensive through  his  teaching,  as  well  as  his  compo- 
sitions. After  a  time  he,  too,  entered  on  the  career 
of  conductor,  and  led  the  Dresden  Philharmonic 
concerts.  In  a  couple  of  years  he  gave  this  up  in 
order  to  compose,  but  in  1893  we  ^n^  mm  resuming 
the  baton.  At  present  he  is  living  in  Berlin,  as 
pianist  and  teacher. 

His  works  show  many  examples  of  the  pro- 
gramme tendency  in  symphonic  poems.  Among 
these  are  his  "  Carnival  Pictures,"  "  Maria  Stuart," 
a  short  orchestral  introduction  and  scherzo  called 
"  Die  Jagd  nach  dem  Gliick,"  and  some  Italian 
dances.  There  are  also,  for  orchestra,  a  "  Jubilee 
March,"  and  a  violin  "  Romanza."  The  lesser 
works  include  two  'cello  sonatas,  many  piano  solos 
and  duets,  and  numerous  songs.  But  the  two  com- 
positions that  have  done  most  to  establish  his  fame 
are  the  Symphonic  Variations,  Op.  27,  and  "  Das 


5O  MODERN  COMPOSERS  OF  EUROPE 

Meer,"  a  work  for  male  chorus,  soloists,  orchestra 
and  organ.  This  is  not  a  cantata,  though  contain- 
ing voice  parts;  rather  it  is  a  great  suite,  in 
which  vocal  movements  are  judiciously  contrasted 
with  purely  orchestral  numbers.  All  of  Nicode's 
music  reaches  a  remarkably  high  level,  and  his 
larger  works  are  planned  with  the  most  imposing 
orchestral  architecture.  His  latest  composition  is 
the  choral  symphony,  "  Gloria,"  a  romantic 
"  Sturm  und  Sonnen-Lied." 

George  Alfred  Schumann  was  born  at  Konigstein, 
Saxony,  on  October  25,  1866.  After  lessons  from 
his  father,  who  was  city  musical  director,  he  con- 
tinued his  studies  at  Dresden.  A  period  at  the 
Leipzig  conservatory  resulted  in  the  production  of 
two  symphonies,  an  orchestral  serenade,  and  many 
lesser  works,  all  of  which  gained  him  the  Beethoven 
prize  in  1887.  A  period  of  five  years  as  conductor 
of  the  Dantzig  Gesangverein  was  followed  by  a  simi- 
lar length  of  time  in  Bremen,  where  he  led  both  the 
Philharmonic  Orchestra  and  the  chorus  organiza- 
tion. In  1900  he  settled  in  Berlin,  as  conductor  of 
the  Singakademie. 

His  first  noteworthy  work  was  "  Amor  and 
Psyche,"  for  chorus  and  orchestra.  His  symphonic 
variations  on  a  seventeenth-century  choral  crossed 
the  ocean,  and  made  his  name  familiar  in  America. 


GERMAN  TONE -POETS  AND  SYMPHONISTS  51 

This  was  followed  by  an  overture,  "  The  Dawn  of 
Love,"  in  which  Love  dawns  in  a  rather  noisy 
fashion.  His  variations  and  double  fugue  on  a  gay 
theme  are,  at  times,  somewhat  forced  in  their 
gaiety,  but  the  "  Totenklage,"  for  chorus  and 
orchestra,  with  words  from  Schiller's  "  Braut  von 
Messina,"  is  decidedly  effective.  Altogether,  he  is 
a  composer  whose  works  show  much  merit,  but  often 
a  lack  of  any  great  delicacy  in  thought,  and  a  heavy 
hand  in  instrumentation. 

Friedrich  Gernsheim,  born  at  Worms  on  July 
17,  1839,  belongs  to  an  older  generation.  In  spite 
of  the  easy  circumstances  resulting  from  the  fact 
that  he  came  of  a  wealthy  family,  he  displayed  great 
earnestness  in  his  early  studies.  Lessons  at  home, 
in  Mainz,  and  in  Frankfort  culminated  in  the  cus- 
tomary finishing  period  at  Leipzig,  under  Moscheles, 
Richter,  and  others.  A  sojourn  in  Paris  followed, 
during  which  Gernsheim  became  an  ardent  supporter 
of  the  abortive  Wagner  movement,  and  where  he 
enjoyed  the  friendship  of  Saint-Saens,  Lalo,  and 
other  notables.  In  1861  he  returned  to  his  native 
land,  to  succeed  Levi  as  director  at  Saarbriicken. 
A  long  period  of  conservatory  teaching  in  Cologne 
was  followed  by  a  call  to  Rotterdam.  There,  as 
director -of  the  Society  for  the  Encouragement  of 
Musical  Art,  he  entered  upon  a  career  of  varied 


52  MODERN  COMPOSERS  OF  EUROPE 

activity  that  lasted  sixteen  years.  In  1890  he  be- 
came head  of  the  Stern  Singing  Society,  and  teacher 
in  the  Stern  Conservatory  in  Berlin,  where  he  has 
since  then  made  his  home.  In  recent  years  he  has 
been  prominent  in  the  National  Academy  of  Art,  and 
in  1901  he  was  placed  in  charge  of  a  so-called 
Masterschool  for  Composition. 

His  numerous  works  display  the  most  solid 
worth,  even  though  the  academic  quality  is  present 
at  times.  Of  his  four  symphonies,  the  first  and  the 
last  are  most  frequently  given.  For  mixed  chorus 
and  orchestra  he  has  composed  several  great  works, 
"  Die  Nordische  Sommernacht  "  and  "  Der  Nornen 
Wiegenlied "  being  among  these.  Of  his  male 
choruses,  also  with  orchestra,  such  works  as 
"  Salamis,"  and  the  mediaeval  "  Wachterlied,"  are 
in  the  repertoire  of  every  German  Mannerchor. 
There  are  many  worthy  examples  of  chamber 
music  by  him,  and  a  violin  concerto  that  won  a 
Boston  success  under  Paur. 

Robert  Kahn,  born  at  Mannheim  on  July  21, 
1865,  received  his  musical  education  under  such 
teachers  as  Kiel,  Rheinberger,  and  even  Brahms. 
He  has  published  little  in  the  larger  forms,  but  his 
lesser  works  display  a  thematic  excellence  and  a 
smoothness  in  leading  the  voices  that  have  won  him 
wide  recognition.  Leipzig  was  the  scene  of  his  early 


GERMAN  TONE -POETS  AND  SYMPHONISTS    53 

activity,  but  in  1893  he  became  piano  teacher  in  the 
Berlin  Hochschule.  Five  years  later  he  took  charge 
of  the  theory  and  composition,  and  in  1903  was 
named  Royal  Professor.  An  Elegiac  Overture  in 
C  minor,  played  from  manuscript  at  one  of  Paur's 
Boston  concerts,  proved  extremely  effective.  It  is  a 
shapely  work,  with  a  rather  dissonant  introduction, 
but  clean-cut  themes  and  an  excellent  climax. 

Ferdinand  Thieriot,  another  of  the  elders,  was 
born  in  Hamburg,  April  7,  1838.  After  lessons  at 
Altona  and  Vienna,  he  too  came  under  the  much- 
admired  Rheinberger,  whose  guidance  was  of  the 
greatest  value.  A  small  theatre  position  in  Ansbach 
was  followed  by  the  leadership  of  the  Glogau  Singa- 
kademie,  after  which  came  fifteen  years  of  activity  in 
Graz,  both  as  conductor  and  composer.  Thieriot 
still  reverts  with  pleasure  to  his  stay  at  the  Austrian 
city.  "  In  the  beautiful  Alpine  landscape,"  he  writes, 
"  I  passed  an  extremely  happy  and  inspiring  time, 
in  the  midst  of  a  set  of  people  all  highly  cultivated, 
and  all  so  enthusiastic  over  music."  Among  these 
people  was  the  elder  Hausegger,  whose  delightful 
"  Snow-Fable  "  Thieriot  set  to  music.  After  a  long 
stay  in  Leipzig,  devoted  to  composition,  he  returned 
to  his  native  Hamburg,  where  he  now  resides. 

Among  his  eighty  published  works,  the  orchestral 
fantasie,  "  Loch  Lomond,"  takes  a  high  place, 


54  MODERN  COMPOSERS  OF  EUROPE 

although  Thieriot  affords  another  proof  that  Ger- 
man earnestness  cannot  always  assimilate  the  light- 
ness of  the  Scotch  style.  The  Sinfonietta  and  over- 
ture to  "  Turandot "  are  well  known,  the  former 
having  received  a  Boston  performance  under 
Nikisch.  Four  manuscript  symphonies  are  some- 
times heard  abroad,  one  in  C  major  being  especially 
preferred.  There  is  also  much  chamber  music  and 
choral  work  by  Thieriot,  and  an  opera,  "  Renata." 

Josef  Rheinberger,  who  died  in  1902,  still  lives 
in  the  memory  of  his  many  famous  pupils,  and  de- 
serves more  than  a  passing  mention.  Born  in  1837, 
he  played  the  piano  at  five,  and  the  organ  at  seven 
years  of  age.  His  long  career  as  teacher  in  the 
Royal  School  of  Music,  at  Munich,  was  supple- 
mented by  his  many  works  as  a  composer.  In  the 
orchestral  field  he  produced  the  Florentine  Sym- 
phony, a  tone-picture,  "  Wallenstein,"  a  fantasia, 
three  overtures,  and  several  piano  and  organ  con- 
certos. He  composed  also  two  operas,  "  Die  Sieben 
Raben,"  and  "  Des  Thiirmers  Tochterlein."  There 
is  much  chamber  music,  and  an  excellent  Mass.  All 
these  are  marked  by  attractive  harmonies  and 
smooth  leading  of  the  voices.  An  unfinished  Mass, 
in  A  minor,  was  completed  by  one  of  Rheinberger's 
Boston  pupils,  Mr.  L.  A.  Coerne. 

Another  well-known  composer  who  died  recently 


- 


GERMAN  TONE -POETS  AND  SYMPHONISTS    55 

(1902)  was  August  Klughardt.  A  native  of 
Kothen,  he  pursued  his  studies  at  Dresden,  and  be- 
came court  conductor  at  Neustrelitz  and  Dessau. 
His  symphonic  poem,  "  Leonore,"  is  a  notable  work, 
and  his  three  symphonies  are  worthy  examples  of  the 
stricter  style  of  composition.  He  won  further  fame 
by  several  effective  overtures  and  four  operas. 

Moritz  Moszkowski,  widely  known  as  piano  com- 
poser and  performer,  has  produced  several  orches- 
tral works  also.  His  opera,  "  Boabdil,"  was  suc- 
cessfully given  in  Berlin,  while  his  symphonic  poem, 
"  Jeanne  d'Arc,"  has  also  attracted  attention. 
Besides  these  there  are  two  orchestral  suites, 
a  fantasie,  a  violin  and  a  piano  concerto.  Yet 
in  spite  of  the  merit  of  these  works,  his  piano 
pieces  win  him  most  renown.  He  seems  gifted  with 
natural  ability  to  assume  any  style  he  pleases,  from 
Spanish  dances  to  Hungarian  czardas.  His 
Humoreske,  the  "  Moments  Musicaux,"  the  sere- 
nades, minuets,  barcarolles,  waltzes,  etudes,  and 
other  works,  are  too  well  known  among  pianists  to 
need  enumeration.  His  beautiful  four-hand  suite, 
"  Aus  Allen  Landern,"  and  many  other  four-hand 
pieces,  are  equally  familiar.  Of  all  salon  composers, 
he  is  the  worthiest,  the  most  classical  in  style. 

That  he  is  not  lacking  in  humour  is  shown  by  the 
autobiography  which  he  sent  recently  to  the  Boston 


56  MODERN  COMPOSERS  OF  EUROPE 

pianist,  Ernst  Perabo.  After  bewailing  the  fact  that 
his  birth  (August  23,  1854)  was  not  marked  by  any 
great  natural  cataclysms,  he  continues :  "  Embit- 
tered by  this  injustice,  I  determined  to  avenge 
myself  on  the  world  by  playing  piano,  which  I  con- 
tinued in  Dresden  and  Berlin  as  Kullak's  pupil.  In 
spite  of  the  theoretical  instruction  of  Kiel  and 
Wuerst,  a  desire  to  compose  was  early  aroused  in 
me.  I  perpetrated  in  time  an  overture,  a  piano 
concerto,  two  symphonies,  piano  and  violin  pieces, 
songs,  etc.  .  .  .  My  prominence  as  a  pianist  is 
known  to  you.  Besides  these  extensive  acquire- 
ments, I  can  play  billiards,  chess,  dominoes,  and 
violin,  and  can  ride,  imitate  canary  birds,  and  relate 
jokes  in  the  Saxon  dialect.  I  am  a  very  tidy,  ami- 
able man,  and  your  devoted  friend  and  colleague,  — 
Moritz  Moszkowski." 

Another  of  the  old  guard  is  Max  Bruch,  born  at 
Cologne,  on  January  6,  1838.  He  studied  first  at 
Bonn,  and  a  four-year  Frankfort  scholarship  which 
he  obtained  enabled  him  to  work  under  Hiller, 
Reinecke,  and  Breuning.  At  fourteen,  he  began 
with  a  symphony.  At  twenty,  he  set  Goethe's 
Singspiel,  "  Scherz,  List,  und  Rache."  Four  years 
later  came  the  opera  "  Lorelei,"  and  the  great  male 
chorus-cantata  "  Frithjof."  Soon  after  this,  at 
Coblentz,  came  his  remarkable  G-minor  violin  con- 


GERMAN   TONE- POETS  AND   SYMPHONISTS    57 

certo.  Conducting  in  Berlin,  Liverpool,  and  Bres- 
lau  followed,  with  a  return  to  Berlin  in  1892. 

He  wrote  three  symphonies,  an  oratorio, 
"  Moses,"  and  a  second  opera,  "  Hermione,"  based 
on  "  The  Winter's  Tale,"  but  he  found  his  special 
field  in  the  epic  cantata.  The  ringing  measures  of 
"  Frithjof  "  found  a  worthy  counterpart  in  the  noble 
dignity  of  "  Odysseus."  "  Arminius,"  another 
heroic  cantata,  is  not  so  great,  though  the  composer 
likes  it  best.  Other  works  in  the  same  vein  are 
"  Achilleus  "  and  "  Das  Lied  von  der  Glocke,"  and 
for  male  chorus  "  Salamis,"  "  Leonidas,"  and 
"  Normannenzug."  Bruch's  activity  is  by  no  means 
ended,  and  new  works  by  him  still  appear  from  time 
to  time,  such  as  the  cantata  "  Damajanti." 

The  Scharwenka  brothers  have  won  fame  by 
composing,  as  well  as  by  teaching.  They  are  natives 
of  Samter,  Posen,  where  Ludwig  Philipp  was  born 
in  1847,  and  Franz  Xaver  in  1850.  After  studying 
at  Kullak's  Berlin  Akademie,  they  soon  founded  a 
conservatory  of  their  own.  In  1891  they  repeated 
this  performance  in  New  York.  Philipp  soon  re- 
turned, to  merge  the  Berlin  institution  with  that  of 
Klindworth,  and  Xaver  afterward  became  director 
of  the  new  school.  Both  now  reside  in  Berlin. 

Philipp  has  composed  the  two  choral  cantatas 
"  Herbstfeier  "  and  "  Sakuntala,"  two  symphonies, 


58  MODERN  COMPOSERS   OF  EUROPE 

an  "  Arcadian  Suite,"  a  serenade,  a  festival  overture, 
and  other  lesser  works,  reaching  the  opus  number  of 
112.  Xaver  has  won  some  fame  as  conductor  and 
pianist,  as  well  as  in  the  creative  field.  His  opera, 
"  Mataswintha,"  was  given  in  Weimar,  and  he  is 
also  known  through  a  symphony  and  three  piano 
concertos. 

Among  many  other  excellent  composers  who 
might  be  named,  Paul  Geisler,  of  Leipzig,  has  pro- 
duced a  round  dozen  of  symphonic  poems,  among 
them  "  Der  Rattenfanger  von  Hameln,"  «nd  "  Eu- 
lenspiegel."  The  "  Fata  Morgana,"  a  work  in  the 
same  form  by  Karl  Gleits,  of  Berlin,  was  produced 
there  by  Nikisch  in  1898.  Max  Puchat,  a  native  of 
Breslau,  is  responsible  for  such  works  as  "  Eupho- 
rion  "  and  the  "  Tragodie  eines  Kunstlers."  Otto 
Dorn,  of  Wiesbaden,  is  credited  with  a  "  Prome- 
theus "  symphony,  also  the  opera  "  Afraja,"  and  the 
overtures  "  Herrmannschlacht "  and  "  Sappho." 
Hans  von  Bronsart,  husband  of  the  famous  Inge- 
borg,  has  written  a  symphony,  "  In  den  Alpen." 

Less  known  is  August  Reuss,  a  pupil  of  Thuille. 
His  symphonic  prologue,  "  Der  Thor  und  der  Tod," 
is  a  dramatic  picture  of  a  dialogue  between  Death 
and  a  blind  skeptic  who  has  wasted  his  life.  A  sym- 
phonic poem,  "  Johannisnacht,"  is  also  winning  suc- 
cess. Josef  Joachim,  famous  in  the  violin  world, 


GERMAN  TONE -POETS  AND   SYMPHONISTS    59 

has  composed  several  good  overtures,  including 
"  Hamlet,"  and  some  excellent  symphonic  varia- 
tions. Hans  Winderstein,  the  young  but  enthu- 
siastic concert  leader  in  Leipzig,  is  responsible 
for  a  serenade,  a  suite,  a  valse  caprice,  and  a 
funeral  march  for  orchestra.  Gustav  Satter,  of 
Vienna,  lived  for  a  time  in  Paris  and  received  high 
praise  from  Berlioz.  His  works  include  the  opera 
"Olanthe,"  the  overtures  "Lorelei,"  "An  die 
Freude,"  and  "  Julius  Csesar,"  also  two  symphonies. 
An  extended  tour  in  America  finds  expression  in  his 
tone-picture  entitled  "  Washington."  All  these  men 
rise  to  a  high  standard  of  excellence,  and  would  be 
great  in  a  lesser  country.  But  in  Germany,  where 
musical  knowledge  is  widely  disseminated,  it  is  only 
to  be  expected  that  there  should  be  a  large  number 
of  talents  to  echo  the  work  of  her  leading  geniuses. 


CHAPTER    III. 

GERMAN     OPERA     COMPOSERS 

RANKING  among  the  very  foremost,  not  only  of 
his  own  country,  but  of  the  musical  world,  is  Carl 
Goldmark,  whose  long  and  honourable  career  is 
marked  by  an  activity  still  unabated.  He  has  won 
laurels  in  many  fields.  His  symphonies  and  over- 
tures are  known  and  prized  wherever  orchestral 
music  is  cultivated;  his  concertos  and  chamber 
music  are  still  favourites  with  aspiring  soloists ;  and 
his  operas,  if  not  all  popular,  are  marked  by  sincerity 
of  method  and  beauty  of  style,  as  well  as  richness 
of  colouring. 

Goldmark  was  born  at  Keszthely,  Hungary,  May 
1 8,  1830.  Son  of  a  cantor  who  possessed  a  remark- 
ably fine  voice,  young  Carl  soon  showed  musical 
gifts,  and  at  the  age  of  twelve  appeared  in  public 
as  a  violinist.  He  continued  his  work  in  theatre 
orchestras  until  1848,  when  he  was  obliged  to  enter 
the  army  of  Germany,  his  adopted  country,  as  one  of 

60 


GERMAN  OPERA    COMPOSERS  6 1 

the  Landsturm.  After  the  service  came  some  con- 
servatory lessons  at  Vienna,  obtained  through  the 
aid  of  an  elder  brother,  Joseph;  but  as  Joseph's 
connection  with  the  revolution  forced  him  into  exile 
in  America,  the  tuition  soon  came  to  an  end. 

But  Goldmark's  ambition  would  not  let  him  rest. 
Too  poor  to  take  piano  lessons,  he  managed,  out  of 
his  tiny  salary,  to  hire  a  small  instrument  for  him- 
self, and,  after  returning  from  his  theatrical  work, 
he  would  often  practise  half  the  night.  He  taught 
himself  piano  and  singing,  with  such  success  that 
he  was  soon  able  to  give  lessons  to  others.  He 
studied  the  scores  of  the  great  masters  with  the 
utmost  thoroughness.  Not  content  with  music  alone, 
he  made  himself  acquainted  with  several  languages, 
and  became  an  enthusiastic  student  of  philosophy. 

It  was  in  1855  that  he  began  his  life-work  as  com- 
poser, though  none  of  his  earlier  pieces  were  pub- 
lished. His  first  decided  success  came  some  years 
later,  with  the  "  Sakuntala  "  overture.  Based  on  the 
East  Indian  legend  of  the  nymph  Sakuntala,  who  is 
wooed  and  won  by  King  Dushianta,  then  forgotten 
through  the  magic  of  a  jealous  priest,  but  finally 
remembered  because  of  a  ring  the  king  had  given 
her,  the  overture  is  deeply  imbued  with  the  rich, 
oriental  colouring  and  warmth  of  instrumentation 
that  have  made  Goldmark  famous.  Of  his  other 


62  MODERN  COMPOSERS  OF  EUROPE 

overtures,  "  Penthesilea  "  and  "  Im  Friihling  "  dis- 
play the  same  vivid  sensuousness,  while  "  Prome- 
theus Bound,"  of  later  date,  is  more  severe  in  style 
but  altogether  dignified  and  noble. 

Of  symphonies,  Goldmark  has  produced  two,  — 
that  is,  providing  that  the  term  may  be  properly  ap- 
plied to  the  series  of  instrumental  pictures  that  go 
to  form  the  "  Rustic  Wedding."  A  wedding-march 
with  nearly  a  dozen  variations,  a  bridal  song,  a  sere- 
nade and  garden  scene  with  love-duet,  and  a  dance- 
finale,  are  hardly  the  best  example  of  strict  form; 
but  they  show  a  wealth  of  melodic  beauty  that  pos- 
sesses a  perennial  charm.  A  second  symphony,  in 
E-flat,  is  less  often  heard,  but  an  orchestral  scherzo 
shows  the  true  rollicking  spirit  of  its  name,  and  a 
violin  concerto  remains  widely  popular.  Some 
excellent  chamber  music  and  delightful  vocal  work 
have  won  further  laurels  for  the  composer. 

But  it  was  his  first  opera,  "  The  Queen  of  Sheba," 
that  brought  him  to  the  notice  of  the  musical  world, 
by  its  phenomenal  success.  The  temptations  and 
weakness  of  Assad,  who  is  so  bewitched  by  the 
Queen  of  Sheba,  at  Solomon's  Court,  that  he 
deserts  his  betrothed,  Sulamith,  even  at  their  wed- 
ding ceremony,  only  to  die  banished  in  the  desert 
as  a  punishment,  have  charmed  audiences  in  America 
as  well  as  Europe.  The  impressive  scenes,  the  gor- 


GERMAN  OPERA    COMPOSERS  63 

geous  festivals,  and  the  intensely  dramatic  passages 
have  been  set  to  music  that  is  a  constant  delight. 
The  intrigues  that  delayed  its  first  production,  in 
Vienna,  only  intensified  the  enthusiasm  of  its  re- 
ception, and  the  composer  received  nearly  forty  re- 
calls. 

In  regard  to  his  music,  Goldmark  is  as  interested 
in  the  performances  as  he  is  conscientious  in  the 
composition.  On  one  occasion,  while  travelling  to 
see  his  new  work  given,  he  was  drawn  into  an  ani- 
mated conversation  with  a  lady  who  sat  next  to  him. 
At  the  end,  he  thought  to  please  her  by  introducing 
himself  as  the  "  composer  of  the  '  Queen  of  Sheba.' ' 
"  Oh,  indeed!  "  was  the  reply;  "  and  does  the  post 
pay  well  ?  "  From  the  success  of  the  opera,  it  is 
certain  that  the  post  did  pay,  but  since  then  Gold- 
mark  has  been  known  as  "  court  composer  to  the 
Queen  of  Sheba." 

In  "  Merlin,"  Goldmark  tried  to  adopt  a  style 
less  exclusively  oriental  in  effect.  He  certainly  suc- 
ceeded in  producing  music  of  the  most  luscious 
charm,  but  a  confused  libretto  has  acted  as  a  handi- 
cap to  the  work.  In  the  beginning,  King  Arthur 
wins  against  treachery  and  supernatural  enemies  by 
Merlin's  aid;  but  the  demon,  learning  that  the 
wizard's  power  ceases  when  he  begins  to  love,  per- 
suades Viviane  to  tempt  him.  After  the  victorious 


64  MODERN  COMPOSERS  OF  EUROPE 

warriors  return,  Viviane  and  her  maids  appear,  but 
Merlin,  though  greatly  attracted,  remains  master  of 
himself.  Then  comes  the  wonderful  scene  of  Mer- 
lin's magic  garden,  where  Viviane,  introduced  by 
the  demon,  first  causes  delightful  spirit-dances,  and 
then  enters  on  a  love-scene  with  Merlin,  and  on  his 
revolt  changes  the  place  to  a  desert.  Merlin's  power 
being  now  gone,  he  must  pledge  his  soul  to  the 
demon  to  save  Arthur;  but  Viviane,  who  really 
loves  him,  redeems  him  by  sacrificing  herself.  The 
music  of  "  Merlin,"  when  given  on  the  concert 
stage,  shows  all  of  Goldmark's  usual  gorgeousness 
of  style,  and  it  is  not  improbable  that  the  opera  will 
be  better  appreciated  in  the  future  than  it  is  now. 
"  Heimchen  am  Herd "  is  an  example  of  the 
simpler  style  introduced  by  Humperdinck  in 
"  Hansel  and  Gretel."  Based  on  Dickens's  "  Cricket 
on  the  Hearth,"  it  fallows  the  story  quite  closely. 
John  Peerybingle's  happiness  is  destroyed  by  the 
sight  of  a  stranger,  whom  he  has  brought  home,  in 
close  conversation  with  his  wife.  Old  Tackleton, 
who  brings  the  matter  to  John's  attention,  is  a 
suitor  for  the  hand  of  the  beautiful  orphan  May, 
who  still  pines  for  a  departed  sweetheart.  John  is 
calmed  by  a  dream,  this  time  in  a  summer  rose- 
garden  inhabited  by  elves  and  fairies,  while  the 
stranger  declares  himself  and  marries  May  just 


GERMAN  OPERA    COMPOSERS  65 

when  Tackleton  had  made  his  wedding  preparations. 
The  simple  charm  and  direct  pathos  of  the  music 
seem  almost  a  reminder  of  the  days  of  Lortzing  and 
Kreutzer,  and  the  vocal  numbers  are  full  of  a 
natural  freshness  and  beauty  that  cannot  be  too 
highly  praised.  Especially  attractive  are  the  elfin 
music,  the  prelude  to  the  third  act,  and  the  series  of 
lively  marriage  choruses  that  introduce  the  finale. 
"  Die  Kriegsgefangene  "  is  based  on  an  episode 
of  the  Trojan  War.  Achilles,  mourning  for  Patro- 
clus,  has  killed  Hector  and  dragged  the  body  three 
times  around  Troy.  He  now  buries  Patroclus,  but 
refuses  funeral  rites  to  Hector.  His  mother  Thetis 
cannot  move  him,  but  Briseis,  warned  by  the  shade 
of  Patroclus,  prevails  upon  him  to  do  that  act  of 
justice.  Priam  appears,  and  begs  the  body ;  the  war- 
riors object,  but  at  the  persuasion  of  Briseis  the  hero 
again  yields.  Briseis  is  now  free,  but  she  loves 
Achilles,  and  the  climax  of  the  work  comes  with  his 
discovery  that  he  returns  her  love.  The  music  is 
a  happy  combination  of  classic  simplicity  with 
modern  orchestral  effects,  and  some  critics  have  been 
bold  enough  to  rank  it  as  Goldmark's  best  work. 
Among  the  effective  touches  are  the  choruses  that 
die  away  in  the  distance  after  the  funeral  of  Patro- 
clus, the  orchestral  interlude  before  the  last  act,  and 
the  complaint  of  Priam.  The  role  of  Briseis  is  full 


66  MODERN  COMPOSERS  OF  EUROPE 

of  captivating  scenes,  such  as  her  prayer  to  Aphro- 
dite, her  ballad-like  song  bewailing  the  martial 
harshness  of  Achilles'  youth,  and  the  great  love- 
duet  that  ends  the  work.  Still  more  recent  operas 
by  Goldmark  are  "  Gotz  von  Berlichingen  "  ( 1903), 
and  "  Der  Fremdling,"  not  yet  ( 1904)  performed. 

In  the  last  two  decades  German  opera  has  cen- 
tred about  Wagner.  For  a  time,  his  music  dramas 
overshadowed  all  else.  Then  it  became  a  question 
of  his  successor,  and  many  lesser  aspirants  for  fame 
began  to  follow  in  his  tracks.  Now  there  is  also  an 
effort  to  find  something  new,  or  to  apply  the  old 
methods  in  some  original  manner.  The  work  of 
nearly  all  the  younger  Germans,  in  opera,  divides 
itself  into  these  two  classes. 

Engelbert  Humperdinck  sounded  a  new  note 
when  he  produced  his  "  Hansel  and  Gretel,"  in  1893. 
The  composer  is  certainly  a  great  admirer  of  Wag- 
ner, whose  protege  he  was  in  the  later  Bayreuth 
days.  This  opera,  however,  with  its  attractive  fairy 
atmosphere,  is  by  no  means  an  imitation,  but  pos- 
sesses its  own  distinctive  charm.  The  troubles  of  the 
children  with  their  harsh  stepmother,  their  wander- 
ings in  the  forest,  and  their  adventures  at  the  house 
of  the  witch,  whom  they  finally  push  into  her  own 
oven  and  bake  into  gingerbread,  are  brought  upon 
the  stage  in  a  way  that  charms  children  of  a  larger 


GERMAN  OPERA    COMPOSERS  67 

growth  than  those  for  whom  the  work  was  first 
written.  The  charming  tunefulness  of  the  music, 
well  supported  by  its  rich  scoring,  took  the  world 
by  storm,  and  marked  the  beginning  of  what  may  be 
termed  the  new  romantic  school  of  Germany.  Its 
effect  is  not  unlike  that  of  Weber's  folk-operas,  but 
with  modern  orchestral  colouring.  The  forest  scene, 
where  the  children  say  their  prayers  in  simple  faith, 
and  the  fourteen  angels  do  really  descend  from 
heaven  to  guard  their  slumbers,  is  endowed  with 
ineffable  beauty. 

This  work  marked  the  reaction  from  the  four- 
hour  style  modelled  after  the  Bayreuth  dramas,  and 
it  has  opened  the  way  for  a  large  number  of  short 
but  charming  fairy  operas.  Humperdinck  himself 
has  essayed  one  or  two  further  attempts  in  this  vein, 
but  with  less  success.  Born  near  Bonn,  in  1854, 
his  early  career  was  devoted  to  architecture,  not 
music.  After  Hiller  persuaded  him  to  transfer  his 
allegiance,  he  studied  earnestly,  and  won  many 
prizes.  He  has  been  conservatory  professor  in 
Barcelona,  publisher's  associate  at  Mainz,  teacher 
in  a  musical  institution  at  Frankfort,  and  critic  of 
the  Zeitung  in  that  city.  His  operas,  mostly  written 
for  the  amusement  of  youthful  relatives  at  family 
reunions,  include  "  Dornroschen,"  "  Die  Konigs- 
kinder,"  "  Saint-Cyr,"  and  "  Die  Sieben  Geislein." 


68  MODERN  COMPOSERS  OF  EUROPE 

A  Moorish  Rhapsodic  for  orchestra  is  not  essentially 
great,  and  "  Hansel  and  Gretel "  remains  his  only 
real  success. 

Another  of  the  younger  composers  who  has 
shown  decided  originality  is  Wilhelm  Kienzl.  A 
native  of  Waizenkirchen,  in  Upper  Austria,  where 
he  was  born  on  January  17,  1857,  he  pursued  his 
studies  at  Graz,  at  Prague,  at  Leipzig,  and  finally 
under  Liszt  at  Weimar.  Lectures,  writings,  and  a 
concert  tour  were  succeeded  by  theatre  directorships 
at  Amsterdam  and  Crefeld.  A  sojourn  at  Graz  as 
symphonic  conductor  and  vocal  director  was  fol- 
lowed by  theatre  positions  at  Hamburg  and  Munich, 
after  which  came  a  return  to  the  delightful  atmos- 
phere of  the  Austrian  city.  Kienzl  still  lives  at 
Graz,  as  composer  and  as  critic  of  the  Tageblatt. 

His  first  opera,  "  Urvasi,"  based  on  a  subject  from 
Kalidasa,  won  some  meed  of  success  on  its  appear- 
ance at  Dresden  in  1886.  But  its  melodic  charm 
and  brilliant  instrumentation  did  not  wholly  atone 
for  a  certain  lack  of  dramatic  effect,  and  it  is  not 
often  heard  now.  A  second  work,  "  Heilmar  der 
Narr,"  deals  with  the  magic  healing  qualities  of  a 
seventh  son,  who  loses  his  power  if  rewarded.  He 
cures  the  beautiful  Maya,  but  is  not  as  successful 
with  her  mother,  because  he  now  has  interested 
motives.  When  he  is  sought  after  to  cure  a  pesti- 


GERMAN  OPERA    COMPOSERS  69 

lence  in  a  neighbouring  community,  Maya  sees  why 
his  power  has  departed,  and  sacrifices  herself  in  his 
arms,  that  he  may  regain  it.  This  work,  well  re- 
ceived in  its  time,  has  been  recently  remodelled,  and 
still  holds  the  boards. 

But  Kienzl's  greatest  triumph  was  the  "  Evangeli- 
mann."  Its  plot  is  founded  on  fact,  and  is  an  ex- 
ample of  the  criminal  intrigue  that  is  often  found  in 
small  villages  and  towns  far  more  enlightened  than 
the  Austrian  hamlet  of  Gottweih,  where  the  events 
took  place.  Two  brothers,  Mathias  and  Johannes, 
both  love  the  same  girl,  Martha.  Her  preference 
for  Mathias  arouses  the  ire  of  Johannes,  who  sets 
fire  to  a  barn  where  the  lovers  are  meeting,  and  then 
denounces  Mathias  as  the  incendiary.  Martha  tries 
in  vain  to  save  her  lover,  who  is  sentenced  to  twenty 
years  of  imprisonment.  At  the  expiration  of  this 
period,  Johannes,  who  has  prospered  and  lived  com- 
fortably, is  confronted  at  his  death-bed  by  Mathias, 
who  forgives  his  wicked  brother  even  as  he  himself 
wishes  absolution  from  sin,  and  eternal  salvation. 

This  play  has  met  with  marvellous  success,  having 
been  given  in  no  less  than  168  different  theatres.  It 
has  been  translated  into  seven  languages,  and  per- 
formed in  such  different  countries  as  Germany,  Aus- 
tria, Poland,  Russia,  Switzerland,  and  England,  be- 
sides being  in  preparation  for  Paris,  Brussels,  and 


7O  MODERN  COMPOSERS   OF  EUROPE 

Italy.  America  has  not  yet  heard  the  work,  but 
America  is  notoriously  far  behind  the  times  in 
operatic  novelties.  The  composer  himself  has  often 
been  called  to  direct  it,  and  has  been  the  recipient  of 
many  honours.  The  music  is  pleasing  in  character, 
and  its  inspiration  is  everywhere  acknowledged. 
The  scene  depicting  the  assembled  multitude,  in  the 
first  act,  is  replete  with  humourous  touches,  and  if 
Mathias  becomes  a  trifle  long-winded  in  the  mono- 
logue describing  his  imprisonment,  the  final  scenes 
are  treated  with  true  dramatic  instinct. 

Kienzl's  fourth  opera,  the  tragi-comedy  "  Don 
Quixote,"  depicts  that  hero  reading  in  his  study, 
dreaming  of  knighthood,  and  deciding  on  that  peril- 
ous career,  despite  his  niece  Mercedes.  Then  comes 
the  scene  at  Tirante's  Inn,  where  he  takes  the  guests 
for  nobles,  and  insists  on  receiving  the  accolade. 
His  attack  on  the  wine-skins  causes  great  tumult, 
from  which  the  duke  and  duchess  withdraw  him  to 
their  castle.  There  (Act  II.)  follow  the  ride  through 
the  air,  and  other  entertaining  episodes,  after  which 
(Act  III.)  Mercedes  sends  her  lover  Carrasco,  as 
Knight  of  the  White  Moon,  to  bring  back  the  wan- 
derer, who  returns  to  sanity  and  death.  Kienzl  is 
not  only  an  opera  composer,  but  has  written  numer- 
ous orchestral  works,  some  chamber  music,  and 
many  piano  pieces  and  songs.  One  of  his  male 


GERMAN  OPERA    COMPOSERS  Jl 

choruses,  "  Das  Volkslied,"  won  a  prize  at  the  im- 
perial contest  held  at  Frankfort  in  1903,  and  caused 
the  German  emperor  himself  to  present  the  composer 
with  an  autographed  picture. 

Max  Schillings  is  another  upholder  of  the  Wag- 
nerian  traditions.  Born  at  Diiren,  in  1868,  he 
studied  law  at  first,  in  Munich,  but,  like  Schumann, 
gave  it  up  for  music,  and  at  the  age  of  twenty-two 
composed  his  first  great  opera,  "  Ingwelde."  He, 
too,  was  one  of  the  Bayreuth  enthusiasts,  and 
directed  the  stage  management  there  in  1892.  The 
production  of  his  opera  by  Mottl,  two  years  later, 
brought  him  to  Karlsruhe.  He  now  lives  in  Munich, 
where  his  early  legal  efforts  are  forgotten,  and  his 
fame  as  a  composer  is  everywhere  known. 

"  Ingwelde  "  is  to  some  extent  modelled  on  the 
Bayreuth  plan.  It  is  one  of  the  many  viking  operas 
that  have  sprung  up  in  the  wake  of  "  Tristan." 
Yet  it  has  enough  merit  of  its  own  to  hold  the  stage, 
and  has  won  its  composer  his  chief  renown.  The 
heroine,  who  has  the  title  role,  is  wife  of  Gest  of 
Gladgard.  Klause,  the  viking  of  Thorstein,  invades 
the  city  to  carry  her  off,  but  is  struck  apparently 
dead  by  Gest.  On  her  uttering  a  mocking  oath  that 
she  would  follow  only  Gest's  victims,  Klause  arises 
and  claims  her.  At  his  castle,  whither  she  is  taken, 
Ingwelde  sends  him  on  a  false  errand,  and  through 


72  MODERN  COMPOSERS   OF  EUROPE 

the  treachery  of  his  brother  Bran,  who  loves  her 
also,  he  is  killed.  Ingwelde  returns  to  Gladgard, 
but  Bran  pursues  and  kills  Gest.  His  love  prevents 
him  from  killing  Ingwelde,  while  she  refuses  to 
avenge  herself  on  him.  Influenced  by  the  woe  and 
trials  of  hapless  love,  the  pair  push  off  in  Bran's 
boat,  and  meet  death  by  setting  it  on  fire.  The 
music  to  this  gory  plot  displays  much  melodic  beauty 
and  expressive  power,  but  the  story  is  certainly  a  re- 
minder of  Isolde's  love-death. 

"  Der  Pfeifertag,"  this  time  evidently  inspired  by 
"  Die  Meistersinger,"  is  a  rather  confused  account 
of  various  adventures  on  "  Pipers'  Day,"  celebrated 
by  that  guild  on  the  Tuesday  following  the  Virgin's 
birthday.  The  chief  episodes  in  the  plot  are  the 
reduction  of  an  excessive  toll  paid  by  the  pipers,  the 
pretended  death  of  one  of  the  guild,  who  thus 
obtains  the  eulogy  which  a  rival  would  not  grant 
him  during  life,  and  the  pairing  off  of  two  loving 
couples  after  various  obstacles  are  overcome.  The 
score  is  criticized  as  being  rather  too  earnest  and 
heavy  for  its  subject,  though  of  course  it  is  not 
lacking  in  musical  worth.  Among  purely  orchestral 
works,  Schillings  has  produced  two  symphonic 
fantasias,  entitled  "  Meergruss  "  and  "  Seemor- 
gen ; "  also  the  broad  and  solemn  symphonic 
prologue  to  the  "  GEdipus  Rex  "  of  Sophocles. 


GERMAN  OPERA    COMPOSERS  73 

Cyrill  Kistler  was  at  one  time  looked  upon  as  the 
certain  successor  of  Wagner.  Yet  the  public,  after 
growing  enthusiastic  over  his  works,  has  almost 
forgotten  them,  and  they  are  seldom  chosen  by  the 
managers.  This  ambitious  and  thorough  composer 
was  born  near  Augsburg,  in  1848.  Gifted  with 
musical  appreciation,  his  studies  were  delayed  by  the 
loss  of  his  parents,  which  forced  him  to  earn  a  living 
as  school-teacher  for  several  years.  Returning  to  the 
study  of  music  at  Munich,  he  became  a  devout  Wag- 
nerian,  in  spite  of  opposition  from  his  teachers. 
Once,  when  the  hidebound  Lachner  expressed  his 
surprise,  Kistler  replied,  "  If  you  had  written 
*  Tannhauser,'  '  Lohengrin/  and  the  '  Ring,'  I 
would  have  been  a  Lachner  enthusiast." 

Of  his  operas,  "  Kunihild,"  the  first,  depicts  a 
magic  castle,  along  the  top  of  whose  walls  any 
suitor  must  ride  in  order  to  obtain  Kunihild's  hand. 
Sigun  announces  himself  as  a  suitor,  but  because  of 
his  likeness  to  his  twin  brother,  Sighr.rt,  appears 
faithless.  Kunihild  learns,  from  a  hermit's  solilo- 
quy, that  the  ride  must  be  made  on  a  white  horse, 
chosen  without  knowledge  of  this  condition.  The 
hermit,  on  discovering  her,  threatens  to  kill  her,  but 
Kunibert,  another  brother  of  Sigun,  rescues  her, 
and  the  pair  fall  in  love.  Kunibert  chooses  a  white 
horse,  and  accomplishes  the  dangerous  ride,  but  his 


74  MODERN  COMPOSERS  OF  EUROPE 

wedding  is  interrupted  by  Sighart.  Kunihild's 
father  had  formerly  taken  the  castle  from  the  family 
of  Kunibert  and  Sighart,  and  the  latter  now  com- 
pletes the  long-planned  revenge  by  preventing  recon- 
ciliation and  killing  the  bridegroom,  whereupon 
Kunihild  throws  herself  from  the  walls. 

A  comic  opera,  "  Eulenspiegel,"  preceded  by  ten 
years  the  symphonic  poem  of  Strauss  on  the  same 
subject.  Then  came  another  serious  drama, 
"  Baldur's  Tod,"  based  on  the  beautiful  saga  of 
Baldur's  love  for  Nana.  Odin,  fearful  for  Baldur, 
seeks  the  advice  of  the  Wala,  who  tells  him  only  to 
"  Bless  the  plants."  This  he  does,  in  an  impressive 
scene,  but  he  forgets  the  mistletoe.  Loki  seeks 
Hodur  and  betrays  Baldur's  love  for  a  mortal,  but 
Odin,  happy  at  seeing  the  dearest  of  his  sons  once 
more,  is  soon  appeased.  He  then  has  the  spears 
brought  for  a  festival  contest.  Baldur  hurls  one 
with  the  other  contestants,  but  while  he  watches  it, 
the  blind  Hodur,  led  by  Loki,  strikes  him  down  with 
the  fatal  mistletoe.  The  dying  Baldur  foretells  the 
decline  of  the  gods  and  the  dawn  of  Christianity. 
Nana,  too,  dies  of  sorrow.  The  gods  stand  about  in 
anxiety  and  dismay,  when  suddenly  the  scene 
changes  to  a  temple,  with  men  kneeling  before  the 
altar,  and  solemn  voices  intone  "  Glory  to  God  in  the 
highest!" 


GERMAN  OPERA    COMPOSERS  J$ 

Kistler's  friend,  Bruno  Wieland,  strove  to  draw 
him  into  a  more  popular  vein,  and  produced  the 
libretto,  "  Im  Honigmond,"  which  the  composer 
made  into  a  delightful  stage  idyl.  A  larger  work 
in  the  romantic  style  is  the  successful  "  Roslein  im 
Hag,"  in  the  plot  of  which,  however,  the  atmos- 
phere of  "  Die  Meistersinger  "  is  again  apparent. 
In  a  mediaeval  town,  where  Rose  dwells  and  raises 
her  flower-garden,  the  rich  Jacob,  a  master  smith, 
woos  her  in  vain.  The  minstrel  Frank,  a  fugitive 
from  the  ducal  court,  wins  her  pity  and  her  love  and, 
in  order  to  be  near  her,  becomes  apprentice  to 
Jacob.  Rose  wishes  to  be  wooed  and  won  by  song, 
so  Jacob  pays  Frank  to  sing  for  him,  for  one  day, 
and  makes  appropriate  gestures  at  a  serenade,  while 
Frank,  now  aware  of  his  false  position,  does  the 
singing  to  fulfil  his  promise.  Meanwhile  the  town 
clerk,  Florian,  eager  to  catch  Frank,  and  win  the 
duke's  favour,  captures  the  astonished  Jacob.  The 
people  are  aroused,  and  a  riot  scene  occurs,  but 
Florian  escapes  with  his  prey.  Jacob,  to  win  Rose, 
tries  to  maintain  the  deception,  but  the  duke  rates 
him  roundly,  and  the  tones  of  Frank's  song,  sung 
by  himself,  explain  the  situation.  The  day's  service 
is  over,  and  Frank,  now  pardoned  by  the  duke,  is 
free  to  claim  Rose  for  his  own.  The  score  is  full 
of  a  pleasing  sprightliness,  and  had  not  Wagner's 


76  MODERN  COMPOSERS  OF  EUROPE 

opera  shown  the  path  first,  this  work  would,  un- 
doubtedly, rank  as  a  great  masterpiece.  Its  success 
will  surely  mean  a  wider  public  recognition  for 
Kistler,  who  is  now  at  work  on  another  opera, 
entitled  "  Der  Vogt  von  Miihlstein." 

The  work  of  August  Bungert  is  planned  on  a 
grander  scale  than  any  of  the  operas  already 
described.  He  has  attempted  nothing  less  than  a 
hexalogy,  dealing  with  the  Homeric  epics,  as  Wag- 
ner handled  the  Norse  mythology.  Born  at  Miihl- 
heim,  his  musical  studies  took  him  successively  to 
Cologne,  Paris,  and  Berlin.  His  later  life  has  been 
passed  in  a  pleasant  home  near  Genoa,  where  he 
planned  and  completed  his  great  work.  It  is 
divided  into  two  groups ;  "  Achilles  "  and  "  Klytem- 
nestra  "  are  taken  from  the  Iliad,  while  the  material 
of  the  Odyssey  is  used  in  the  "  Kirke,"  "  Nausikaa," 
"  Odysseus  Heimkehr,"  and  "  Odysseus  Tod." 
The  profound  impression  made  by  those  operas  that 
have  come  before  the  public  proves  that  the  task 
has  not  been  a  failure,  but  time  alone  can  show 
whether  these  works  have  the  enduring  qualities 
of  the  Wagnerian  dramas.  The  librettos  certainly 
afford  many  scenes  of  wonderful  beauty  and  power, 
and  if  the  composer  has  done  adequate  work  in 
even  a  few  of  them,  his  operas  will  prove  well  worth 
hearing. 


GERMAN  OPERA    COMPOSERS  JJ 

Of  those  already  given,  "  Kirke  "  is  the  first  in 
order  of  plot.  A  prelude  shows  the  gigantic  form  of 
Gaea,  whose  children  struggle  blindly  in  a  world 
made  bearable  only  by  the  rule  of  Eros.  Then  the 
gods  on  Olympus  decree  the  wanderings  of  Odys- 
seus, after  which  we  find  that  hero  in  the  cave  of 
Polyphemus.  The  blinding  of  the  giant  allows  the 
escape  of  his  prisoners,  but  arouses  the  anger  of 
Poseidon,  who  sends  a  tempest  that  drives  the  ship 
to  ^Easa.  There  the  first  act  shows  Circe,  ruler  of 
a  beautiful  realm,  but  lonely  in  spite  of  her  magic 
power.  Odysseus,  protected  by  the  herb  moly,  is 
safe  from  her  arts,  but  falls  in  love  with  her, 
despite  the  desire  of  his  companions  to  depart. 
The  second  act  shows  these  faithful  followers  build- 
ing a  ship,  the  sight  of  which  arouses  Odysseus 
to  action.  But  Helios,  the  father  of  Circe,  blinds 
him,  and  his  only  cure  is  the  darkness  of  the  nether 
world,  which,  with  Circe's  aid,  he  visits.  In  the 
realm  of  shades  he  is  released  from  his  passion, 
and  in  the  third  act,  after  a  scene  of  storm  on 
Olympus,  he  takes  leave  of  Circe  in  an  effective 
passage,  where  the  vengeance  of  Helios  is  stayed 
by  Zeus.  Circe  is  left  alone,  and,  after  a  reminis- 
cence of  the  fateful  opening  chorus,  the  ship  of 
Odysseus  is  seen  in  the  moonlight  that  hovers  on 
the  distant  sea. 


78  MODERN  COMPOSERS  OF  EUROPE 

The  prelude  to  "  Nausikaa "  is  devoted  to  the 
episode  of  the  sirens.  Then  the  princess  is  seen, 
dancing  and  playing  ball  with  her  maids  in  the 
land  of  the  happy  Phseacians.  Odysseus  is  awak- 
ened, and,  after  receiving  garments  from  her,  is 
welcomed  by  Alcinous.  In  the  second  act,  Eury- 
alus,  wooing  Nausicaa  too  boldly,  is  restrained 
by  Odysseus,  with  whom  Nausicaa  now  falls  in 
love.  The  third  act  shows  the  games  of  strength, 
and  the  prowess  of  Odysseus,  no  less  than  his  song, 
makes  Nausicaa  recognize  him.  Alcinous  gives 
him -a  ship  for  his  homeward  voyage,  and,  when 
Poseidon  arouses  the  waves,  Nausicaa  sacrifices 
herself  to  appease  him. 

In  the  prelude  to  "  Odysseus  Heimkehr,"  the 
suitors,  with  the  exception  of  the  young  and  in- 
genuous Hyperion,  conspire  to  kill  Telemachus 
before  he  can  set  out  to  seek  his  father.  The  first 
act  shows  a  point  of  land,  with  the  hut  of  Eumaeus 
above,  a  Naiad  grotto  below,  and  the  hill  of  Neriton 
in  the  background.  Odysseus  sleeps,  while  the 
Naiads  welcome  him  home.  He  awakes  in  time 
to  defend  Telemachus,  and  with  the  aid  of  the 
shepherds  puts  the  suitors  to  flight.  Eumaeus  rec- 
ognizes him,  the  shepherds  prove  loyal,  and  Laertes 
appears,  to  join  in  a  finale  of  remarkable  beauty. 
The  second  act  shows  Penelope  in  her  chamber, 


79 

defended  from  the  unwelcome  advances  of  Antinous 
by  Hyperion,  who  sacrifices  his  life.  Her  unwind- 
ing of  the  web  is  discovered,  and,  with  the  consent 
of  Odysseus,  disguised  as  a  beggar  and  unknown 
save  by  his  dog,  she  agrees  to  decide  between  the 
suitors  on  the  morrow.  The  third  act  brings  the 
feast  of  Apollo,  the  failure  of  the  arrogant  suitors 
to  bend  the  bow,  and  the  vengeance  of  Odysseus. 
The  last  opera,  "  Odysseus  Tod,"  follows  the  final 
poem  of  the  old  epic  cycle,  and  the  hero  falls 
an  accidental  victim  to  Telegonos,  son  of  himself 
and  Circe. 

In  speaking  of  the  music  to  these  works,  the 
critics  seem  unanimous  in  praise.  The  songs  are 
richly  melodic,  the  ideas  excellently  expressed,  and 
the  guiding  motives  remarkably  characteristic.  At 
the  few  performances  which  have  already  taken 
place,  a  decided  success  has  been  chronicled.  It 
may  surely  be  assumed  that  if  the  music  gives  even 
a  faint  and  far-off  echo  of  the  beauties  of  the 
poems,  these  dramas  will  appeal  to  every  cultivated 
audience.  Bungert  is  also  responsible  for  an  opera 
in  lighter  vein,  —  "  Die  Studenten  von  Salamanca." 
He  has  worked  in  the  purely  orchestral  field,  too, 
as  is  shown  by  his  "  Tasso "  overture,  and  his 
symphonic  poem,  "  Auf  der  Wartburg."  A  so- 
called  Florentine  quartette  gained  a  prize  in  1878, 


80  MODERN  COMPOSERS  OF  EUROPE 

and  his  settings  of  Carmen  Sylva's  poems  have 
won  much  attention. 

Siegfried  Wagner,  as  the  son  of  his  father,  has 
certainly  an  undisputed  right  to  carry  on  the  tradi- 
tions of  his  family;  and  his  three  operas  show 
that  he  has  made  the  effort  to  do  so.  He  was  born 
at  Triebschen,  near  Lucerne,  on  June  6,  1869.  The 
world  will  certainly  envy  him  the  musical  atmos- 
phere of  his  home;  yet  his  early  efforts  were 
devoted  to  architecture.  The  net  result  of  his 
youthful  studies  in  that  line  is  a  rather  commonplace 
monument  to  his  father  at  Bayreuth.  But  the 
young  Siegfried  soon  began  to  aspire  for  his  musical 
heritage,  and  took  lessons  of  Kniese  and  Humper- 
dinck.  His  first  laurels  were  won  as  a  conductor, 
and  although  his  energetic  methods  were  criticized 
on  his  first  appearance  at  the  Wagncrverein  in 
Berlin,  his  later  efforts  have  been  crowned  with 
success.  He  conducts  with  his  left  hand,  and  puts 
decided  aggressiveness  into  his  movements.  He 
has  appeared  in  Austria,  Italy,  and  England,  as 
well  as  his  native  country;  and  a  trip  to  Paris 
was  the  signal  for  much  adulation,  as  a  tardy 
recompense  for  the  coldness  of  his  father's  recep- 
tion in  that  capital. 

"  Der  Barenhauter,"  his  first  opera,  is  in  the 
romantic  style,  with  decided  leanings  toward  the 


SIEGFRIED    WAGNER. 


GERMAN  OPERA    COMPOSERS  8 1 

comic.  Hans  Kraft,  the  hero,  is  a  soldier  in  the 
Thirty  Years'  War,  but  returns  to  his  native  village 
to  find  himself  an  orphan  and  in  poverty.  He  yields 
to  temptation,  and  sells  his  soul  to  the  devil,  though 
his  ultimate  salvation  is  assured  by  Peter,  who 
wins  his  soul  at  dice.  Meanwhile  he  wanders  about 
in  his  bearskin,  with  his  magic  food-sack  and  purse, 
awaiting  redemption  through  the  faith  of  some 
maid  who  will  remain  true  three  years.  At  the 
inn  near  Kulmbach,  the  youngest  daughter  of  the 
host  brings  him  release,  after  her  two  elder  sisters 
have  failed.  Hans  must  be  baptized  in  the  Rhine 
to  be  rid  of  his  bear-hide,  and  is  again  tempted 
by  the  devil  and  the  water-nixies,  but  he  remains 
firm,  and  is  saved. 

"  Herzog  Wildfang,"  the  second  opera,  is  another 
example  of  the  "  Meistersinger  "  influence.  The 
duke,  who  is  made  unpopular  by  the  craft  of  his 
adviser,  Matthias  Blank,  is  led  by  the  latter  to 
mistake  the  beautiful  Osterlind  for  a  wild  animal 
in  his  game-preserve.  He  shoots  and  wounds  her, 
whereupon  the  people  drive  him  out  and  give  the 
power  to  Blank.  Soon  afterward,  the  duke  re- 
turns in  disguise,  and  pays  court  to  Osterlind  in 
her  father's  garden.  To  release  herself  from 
Blank's  attentions,  she  consents  to  a  race  for  her 
hand,  in  which  the  contestants,  disguised,  must 


82  MODERN  COMPOSERS  OF  EUROPE 

fetch  some  cresses  from  a  brook  in  the  meadow 
near  by.  Blank  and  his  satellite,  the  tailor  Zwick, 
acting  on  the  fable  of  the  hare  and  the  hedgehog, 
arrange  to  disguise  alike,  so  that  the  former  need 
only  run  from  the  brook,  and  not  to  it.  Meanwhile 
Osterlind's  real  lover,  Reinhart,  returns,  and  enters 
the  race.  Blank  of  course  comes  in  first,  but  Rein- 
hart,  returning  second  with  Zwick,  exposes  the 
deception.  Blank  has  long  been  suspected  of  theft 
from  the  public  treasury,  and  now  a  tame  crow, 
lighting  on  his  shoulder  with  a  gold-piece,  confirms 
the  suspicions.  In  the  ensuing  tumult  the  duke 
declares  himself  and  wins  back  his  position,  while 
Blank  meets  well-deserved  punishment. 

Siegfried  Wagner's  third  opera,  "  Der  Kobold," 
but  recently  produced,  deals  with  the  legend  that 
the  souls  of  murdered  children  must  wander  about, 
in  the  form  of  kobolds,  until  released  by  the  sacri- 
fice of  the  last  of  their  generation.  The  heroine  is 
Verena,  who  gives  up  her  life  to  save  her  brother's 
spirit.  There  are  many  humourous  scenes,  dealing 
with  the  kobolds'  magic  power  to  aid  good  men 
and  torment  the  bad;  but  as  a  whole  the  plot  is 
rather  confused.  The  music  displays  talent,  as 
shown  in  clever  scoring,  good  orchestral  mastery, 
and  some  excellent  characterization;  but,  in  spite 
of  these  excellences,  and  a  clear,  almost  popular 


GERMAN  OPERA    COMPOSERS  83 

style,  there  is  little  real  greatness  to  be  found  in 
any  of  the  works.  Siegfried  Wagner  has  also 
written  a  symphonic  poem,  "  Sehnsucht,"  after 
Schiller's  text.  He  is  now  ( 1904)  at  work  upon  a 
fourth  opera,  "  Bruder  Lustig,"  based  upon  an  Aus- 
trian legend. 

Eugen  (or  Eugene  Francis  Charles)  d' Albert 
was  born  in  Glasgow,  April  10,  1864,  of  German 
parentage.  After  a  scholarship  in  London,  and 
lessons  from  such  men  as  Pauer,  Stainer,  Prout, 
and  Sullivan,  he  went  to  the  Continent,  and  en- 
tered a  new  atmosphere  under  Richter  and  Liszt. 
So  much  did  he  prize  his  later  studies  that  he  re- 
nounced England  altogether,  and  even  now  is  always 
ready  to  scoff  at  its  plodding  academic  standards. 
His  success  as  a  pianist  is  known  to  all  the  civilized 
world ;  even  in  his  youth,  Liszt  called  him  "  the 
young  Tausig,"  and  his  subsequent  fame  has  jus- 
tified the  term. 

As  a  composer,  too,  he  has  shown  unusual  attain- 
ments, and,  what  is  more  unusual  still,  a  steady 
growth.  His  orchestral  creations  include  such  works 
as  the  two  piano  concertos,  a  'cello  concerto,  the 
"  Esther "  and  "  Hyperion "  overtures,  and  a 
worthy  if  lengthy  symphony.  All  of  D' Albert's 
compositions  show  an  excellent  sense  of  thematic 
beauty,  a  richness  of  harmony  and  instrumentation, 


84  MODERN  COMPOSERS   OF  EUROPE 

a  romantic  tenderness  of  feeling,  and  a  discretion 
and  sanity  of  effect  that  are  in  delightful  contrast 
with  many  of  the  modern  musical  excesses. 

In  opera,  his  first  venture  was  "  The  Ruby," 
based  on  Hebbel's  version  of  an  Oriental  tale.  The 
daughter  of  the  Caliph  of  Bagdad  is  imprisoned 
in  a  ruby,  because  of  her  refusal  to  give  three  drops 
of  blood  to  an  evil  magician.  Asaf,  a  needy  young 
man,  gets  possession  of  the  gem  by  theft,  finds 
a  way  to  free  the  princess  for  an  hour  at  midnight, 
is  arrested  when  discovered  with  the  ruby,  and 
by  throwing  it  away  fulfils  the  unknown  condition 
that  will  release  the  princess;  after  which,  of 
course,  he  receives  her  hand  and  a  rich  reward. 

"  Ghismonda  "  tells  of  love  at  first  sight  between 
the  princess  of  that  name  and  a  handsome  youth 
of  low  degree.  He  is  surprised  by  the  king,  but 
dies  rather  than  reveal  the  secret  of  the  princess. 
She,  however,  proclaims  his  chivalry  to  the  world, 
and  takes  poison.  This  work  was  followed  by 
"  Gernot,"  an  elfin  opera  with  much  delicate  music. 
Then  came  "  Die  Abreise,"  in  which  a  married 
couple,  drifting  apart  after  the  cooling  of  their 
first  love,  are  brought  together  again  by  the  un- 
welcome attentions  of  an  over-amorous  cavalier; 
and  the  departure,  for  which  the  husband  prepared 
at  first,  is  finally  taken  by  the  unsuccessful  gallant. 


GERMAN  OPERA    COMPOSERS  85 

The  rise  of  the  one-act  school  caused  D'Albert 
to  produce  his  "  Kain."  This  is  a  weirdly  effective 
biblical  drama,  in  which  Cain,  despondent  because 
of  the  fall,  is  led  by  Lucifer  to  believe  that  death 
means  an  end  of  sorrow.  The  night  passes,  and, 
in  the  morning,  when  Abel  wishes  to  make  a  sacri- 
fice on  the  altar,  Cain  dissuades  him  at  first,  and 
finally  kills  him.  Cain  is  then  horrified  at  his  own 
deed,  and  in  madness  tries  to  end  his  son's  life 
too;  but  Adam  prevents  him,  his  wife  Adah  joins 
Eve  in  quieting  the  violence,  and  Cain  departs  over 
the  mountain-side  amid  lightning  and  thunder. 
This  remarkably  impressive  work  was  followed  by 
"  Der  Improvisator,"  in  which  some  excellent 
music  was  united  to  a  rather  superficial  libretto 
based  on  Hugo's  "  Angelo,  Tyrant  of  Padua." 
The  composer's  latest  opera  is  "  Tiefland,"  based 
on  a  Spanish  tale,  in  which  true  love  balks  the 
amours  of  a  dissolute  Alcalde. 

Another  composer  who  has  made  his  mark  in 
opera  is  Ignaz  Brull.  Born  in  Moravia,  on  Novem- 
ber 7,  1846,  he  devoted  himself  to  the  piano  at 
first,  making  several  tours  and  becoming  piano- 
professor  at  the  Horak  Institute  in  Vienna,  where 
he  is  now  codirector.  He  was  a  decided  favourite 
with  Brahms,  who  often  chose  the  young  artist  to 
interpret  his  new  works.  Brull  has  also  made  sue- 


86  MODERN  COMPOSERS  OF  EUROPE 

cessful  tours  with  Georg  Henschel,  of  American 
memory. 

Among  Briill's  many  orchestral  works  are  found 
a  symphony,  three  serenades,  several  overtures,  in- 
cluding "  Macbeth,"  two  piano  concertos,  and  a 
violin  concerto.  He  has  also  been  prolific  in 
chamber  music  and  solos  for  piano  and  violin,  while 
many  of  his  songs  are  highly  prized.  But  his 
chief  fame  rests  upon  his  semi-romantic,  semi- 
comic  operas.  After  an  early  work,  "  Die  Bettler 
von  Sammarkand,"  came  "  Das  Goldene  Kreuz," 
which  captivated  Germany  and  even  penetrated  into 
other  countries.  His  latest  successes  include  "  Grin- 
goire,"  "  Der  Landfriede,"  "  Konigin  Mariette," 
"  Das  Steinerne  Herz,"  "  Schach  dem  Konig,"  and 
the  very  successful  "  Der  Husar." 

Hugo  Wolf  is  no  longer  alive  to  witness  the 
growing  appreciation  of  his  works.  Born  in 
Vienna,  March  13,  1860,  he  began  his  studies  at 
an  early  age,  and  took  lessons  from  the  local  con- 
servatory. From  youth  onward,  his  life  was  a 
constant  struggle  to  uphold  his  ideals  in  the  face 
of  extreme  poverty,  and  only  in  the  very  last  years 
of  his  life  did  the  Wolf-Verein  and  other  helping 
friends  establish  him  in  some  degree  of  comfort. 
Then,  in  1898,  began  the  brain-paralysis  that  was 
to  carry  him  off  four  years  later. 


HUGO    WOLF. 


GERMAN  OPERA    COMPOSERS  8? 

It  is  pathetic  to  read,  in  his  letters  and  elsewhere, 
the  account  of  his  efforts  to  make  both  ends  meet. 
Yet  he  was  confident  through  it  all.  "  My  time 
will  come,"  he  wrote  to  Hugo  Faisst,  "  but  it  is 
a  pity  that  one  grows  old  and  morose  in  the  mean- 
while." His  happiness  at  the  long-deferred  pro- 
duction of  his  opera  was  equalled  only  by  the  keen 
disappointment  of  finding  that  even  the  paltry  two 
hundred  marks  ($50)  that  it  brought  him  had  been 
mislaid  or  stolen.  Meanwhile  he  struggled  pa- 
tiently on,  writing  songs  whose  passionate  strength 
and  intense  originality  have  made  his  name  known 
and  respected  in  two  continents. 

His  opera,  "  Der  Corregidor,"  is  a  sprightly 
work,  in  comic  vein,  with  the  strongly  humourous 
scenes  on  the  stage  reproduced  with  remarkable 
skill  and  fidelity  in  the  orchestra.  The  Corregidor, 
or  Spanish  magistrate,  not  content  with  the  pos- 
session of  a  charming  wife,  pays  his  court  to  the 
beautiful  Frasquita,  wife  of  the  miller  Tio  Lucas. 
After  the  pair  have  played  him  many  tricks,  he 
decides  to  force  matters,  and  sends  directions  for 
the  miller's  arrest.  But  the  prisoner  escapes  from 
the  bibulous  Alcalde.  Meanwhile  the  Corregidor, 
on  the  way  to  prosecute  his  suit,  falls  into  a  brook 
by  the  mill,  and  when  Frasquita  goes  in  search  of 
her  husband,  he  dons  a  suit  of  Lucas  and  enters 


88  MODERN  COMPOSERS  OF  EUROPE 

the  miller's  chamber.  Lucas,  returning,  sees  the 
Corregidor's  attire,  and  in  fancied  revenge  puts  it 
on  and  proceeds  to  the  magistrate's  house.  Mean- 
while the  Alcalde  arrests  the  disguised  Corregidor, 
who  declares  himself  and  proceeds  to  his  home, 
where  he  gains  admission  and  unravels  the  plot 
only  after  the  further  trial  of  being  taken  for  an 
impostor.  Fragments  of  a  second  opera,  "  Das 
Fest  auf  Solhaug,"  are  too  incomplete  to  be  fin- 
ished. Wolf's  fame  is  further  increased  by  "  Die 
Christnacht "  and  "  Der  Feuerreiter,"  both  choral 
works  with  orchestral  accompaniment. 

Ludwig  Thuille,  a  friend  of  Strauss,  made  a 
failure  with  his  "  Theuerdank,"  because  the  music 
lacked  originality.  The  fable  "  Lobetanz "  was 
well  received,  however,  and  now  his  romantic 
"  Gugeline  "  is  meeting  with  much  applause.  It  tells 
of  the  love  of  a  prince,  who  has  been  too  strictly 
brought  up,  for  the  most  beautiful  maiden  of  the 
district,  and  introduces  effective  stage  pictures  in  the 
scenes  where  the  prince  is  offered  the  choice  of 
three  princesses,  and  Gugeline  is  expected  to  decide 
between  three  rustic  wooers.  Thuille  is  given  high 
praise  by  all  who  know  him,  and  his  work  will 
bear  watching.  He  studied  for  a  time  with  Carl 
Baermann,  the  well-known  pianist. 

Robert  Fuchs,  the  man  of  many  serenades,  pur- 


GERMAN  OPERA    COMPOSERS  89 

sued  his  studies  at  Vienna,  where  he  is  now  a 
teacher  in  the  conservatory.  His  orchestral  works 
include  also  a  successful  symphony.  In  the  operatic 
field,  the  drama,  "  Die  Teufelsglocke,"  and  the 
comedy,  "  Die  Konigsbraut,"  have  won  much 
favour. 

Among  the  many  others  who  have  worked  in 
the  romantic  field,  Heinrich  Zollner  stands  well  to 
the  fore.  Known  in  America  by  his  work  at 
Cleveland  and  the  Chicago  fair,  his  fame  abroad 
rests  upon  four  operas,  of  which  the  most  popular 
is  a  setting  of  Hauptmann's  delicate  "  Versunkene 
Glocke."  Gustav  Kulenkampf  is  responsible  for 
the  one-act  work,  "  Der  Page,"  the  three-act 
"  Mohrenfiirst,"  "  Die  Braut  von  Cypern,"  and  the 
very  successful  "  Konig  Drosselbart."  Hans 
Pfitzner,  after  producing  "  Der  Arme  Heinrich," 
increased  his  fame  by  the  romantic  forest-opera, 
"  Die  Rose  von  Liebesgarten,"  while  Edmund 
Kretschmer's  "  Folkhunger  "  and  "  Heinrich  der 
Lowe,"  of  earlier  date,  are  still  well  received.  E. 
Klose's  fairy  opera,  "  Ilsebill,"  has  scored  some 
success. 

Leo  Blech  has  done  some  excellent  work  in  "  Das 
War  Ich,"  a  picture  of  village  intrigue,  and  his 
"  Alpenkonig  und  Menschenfeind  "  is  now  on  the 
boards.  Waldermar  von  Baussnern,  besides  over- 


90  MODERN  COMPOSERS  OF  EUROPE 

tures  and  a  symphony,  has  produced  "  Dichter  und 
Welt,"  "  Durer  in  Venedig,"  and  "  Herborg  und 
Hilde."  His  "  Bundschuh,"  on  a  subject  from  the 
Peasants'  War,  is  his  most  recent  success.  The 
viking  vein  has  also  been  adopted  by  Reinhold 
Becker,  whose  "  Ratbold "  followed  the  earlier 
"  Frauenlob."  In  similar  style  is  "  Helga,"  from 
the  pen  of  Hector  von  Woikowsky-Biedau.  These, 
and  many  others  of  lesser  import,  serve  to  enter- 
tain the  most  musically  cultivated  nation  on  earth, 
and,  if  there  is  at  present  no  operatic  giant  in  sight, 
a  host  of  worthy  aspirants  have  made  brave  and 
laudable  attempts  to  fill  the  vacancy. 


CHAPTER   IV. 

BOHEMIANS   AND   OTHERS 

THE  mtusic  of  Bohemia,  in  an  artistic  sense,  is  an 
affair  of  the  past  half-century.  Its  popular  music, 
however,  dates  much  farther  back,  and  begins  with 
the  introduction  of  Christianity  in  the  ninth  cen- 
tury. We  may  read  that  the  litanies  of  Adalbert, 
Bishop  of  Prague,  composed  a  few  decades  later, 
were  used  by  the  soldiers  in  camp  and  in  battle. 
The  religious  style  seemed  to  dominate,  and  the 
Kyrielles  of  Bishop  Arnest  in  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury, as  well  as  the  sacred  strains  of  Cybulovsky  in 
the  seventeenth,  show  that  it  has  held  its  own  down 
to  fairly  recent  times.  In  this  school  we  find  also 
Cernohorsky,  the  teacher  of  Gluck.  The  long  dura- 
tion of  this  severe  and  pure  style  finds  an  echo 
in  the  frequent  contrapuntal  excursions  indulged 
in  by  the  more  secular  Bohemian  composers  of 
later  date.  The  names  of  Novak,  Brixi,  Skojowski, 
Bozan,  and  Kozeluch  may  be  mentioned,  but  they 
do  not  compare  in  importance  with  their  contem- 

91 


92  MODERN  COMPOSERS  OF  EUROPE 

poraries  in  other  musical  countries.  The  lofty 
power  of  Kopriva  and  the  voluminous  productions 
of  Ryba  are  of  little  significance  to-day. 

At  this  period  it  was  customary  for  every  artist 
to  display  an  astonishing  amount  of  virtuosity.  An 
instance  is  furnished  by  a  certain  Kocvara,  who 
played  violin,  piano,  flute,  'cello,  oboe,  and  bassoon, 
to  say  nothing  of  his  position  as  contrabass  player 
in  a  London  orchestra. 

Between  1750  and  1850  Bohemia  had  its  quota 
of  composers,  even  though  not  in  close  touch  with 
the  outer  world.  Such  men  as  Pokorny,  Pichl, 
Jelinek,  the  Dusseks,  and  others,  were  famous 
enough  in  their  time.  In  the  last  century,  the  taste 
and  originality  of  Tomasek,  the  excellent  work 
of  Vorisek,  and  the  suavity  of  Kalliwoda  may  be 
worth  a  passing  mention.  The  introduction  of  the 
polka  gave  a  great  impetus  to  dance  music,  while 
Hnilicka,  Jyrovec,  and  Myslivecek  made  attempts 
in  the  operatic  field.  Although  their  works  strove 
to  be  national  in  style,  they  were  not  always  dis- 
tinctive, and  the  first  really  national  expression 
came  in  the  operas  of  Skraup. 

Frantisek  Skraup  (1801 — 62)  was  renowned 
for  his  conducting  as  well  as  his  compositions. 
His  orchestral  leadership  took  him  at  first  to  Prague, 
where  he  grew  very  progressive,  and  gave  many 


BOHEMIANS  AND    OTHERS  93 

of  Wagner's  earlier  operas.  His  later  home  was 
Rotterdam,  where  he  died  after  a  successful  career. 
His  sacred  and  chamber  music  shows  excellent 
taste,  and  much  feeling  for  harmonic  colour.  His 
songs  have  a  style  of  their  own,  and  even  his 
dances  are  treated  with  some  earnestness.  Many 
of  the  songs  have  become  actual  Volkslieder,  having 
been  adopted  by  the  whole  Bohemian  nation.  Such, 
for  instance,  is  the  patriotic  hymn,  "  Where  Is  My 
Fatherland  ?  "  His  operas  abound  with  attractive 
popular  numbers,  and  achieved  great  success. 
Among  them  are  "  Dratenik,"  first  in  importance, 
the  "  Fete  des  Cordonniers,"  in  lighter  vein,  the 
"  Swiss  Family,"  "  Udalrich  and  Bozena,"  a 
national  subject,  and  the  posthumous  "  Columbus." 

The  advent  of  Smetana  brings  on  the  scene  a 
really  great  composer,  one  whose  work,  not  even 
yet  fully  known  to  outside  nations,  has  won  him 
the  right  to  be  reckoned  among  the  world's  few 
masters  of  music.  Bedrich,  or  Frederick,  Smetana 
was  born  in  1824,  at  the  village  of  Leitomischl.  His 
father  did  not  wish  him  to  be  a  musician,  but  he 
evidently  received  lessons  in  spite  of  this,  for  at 
the  age  of  six  he  played  in  a  local  festival  with 
such  success  that  his  father's  scruples  were  wholly 
overcome. 

He  began  his  serious  studies  under  Proksch,  at 


94  MODERN  COMPOSERS   OF  EUROPE 

Prague,  but  soon  found  his  way  to  Schumann,  who 
became  the  ideal  of  his  early  years.  That  com- 
poser recommended  a  course  under  Mendelssohn; 
but  as  Smetana  was  too  poor  for  this,  he  advised 
a  study  of  Bach's  works.  Smetana  soon  became 
imperial  concertmeister  at  Prague,  where  he  married 
the  pianist  Katharin  Kolar,  and  with  her  help 
founded  a  piano  school. 

Smetana  at  this  time  became  an  ardent  a'dmirer 
of  Liszt,  who  aided  him  in  publishing  some  early 
piano  works.  Of  the  great  master's  symphonic 
poems,  he  said,  "  They  mark  the  limit  of  possibility 
in  the  direction  of  musical  suggestiveness."  But 
he  did  not  live  long  enough  to  hear  the  frenzied 
rhapsodies  of  Richard  Strauss.  While  visiting1 
Liszt  at  Weimar,  he  heard  Herbeck  say  that  the 
Czechs  were  merely  reproductive,  whereupon  he 
took  a  solemn  vow  to  use  all  his  efforts  in  building 
up  a  national  school  in  Bohemia.  The  world  has 
not  even  now  fully  realized  how  well  he  fulfilled 
his  promise. 

From  1856  to  1861  Smetana  occupied  the  post 
of  conductor  of  the  Philharmonic  Orchestra  at 
Gothenburg,  Sweden.  He  had  previously  written 
a  Festival  Overture  and  a  Triumph  Symphony, 
but  the  three  symphonic  poems  produced  during 
this  period  show  a  surer  hand  and  a  riper  genius. 


BEDRICH    SMETANA. 


BOHEMIANS  AND    OTHERS  95 

The  subject  of  the  first  is  Richard  III.,  as  por- 
trayed by  Shakespeare,  and  the  music  gives  a  vivid 
picture  of  the  early  triumphs  and  final  fall  of  that 
deformed  and  cruel  monarch.  Shakespeare  was 
evidently  a  favourite  with  the  composer,  for  soon 
afterward  he  wrote  a  festival  march  for  the  poet's 
three  hundredth  birthday,  and  just  before  his  death 
he  sketched  the  opera  "  Viola,"  based  on  "  Twelfth 
Night."  Another  symphonic  poem  is  "  Wallen- 
stein's  Camp,"  while  "  Hakon  Jarl  "  depicts  a  Norse 
subject. 

On  his  return  to  Bohemia,  after  the  sickness  and 
death  of  his  first  wife,  Smetana  began  work  upon 
the  first  of  the  eight  operas  which  have  made  him 
so  famous  in  his  native  country.  Wagner  was  his 
model  in  this  field,  but  Smetana  was  not  a  mere 
imitator.  "  We  cannot  write  as  Wagner  writes," 
he  said;  but  he  was  artist  enough  to  admire  and 
employ  the  continuous  melodic  style,  with  music 
that  should  follow  the  dramatic  scheme  and  never 
disturb  or  interrupt  it. 

His  first  opera,  "  The  Brandenburgers  in  Bo- 
hemia," was  promptly  attacked  by  the  critics.  He 
was  accused  of  being  a  wolf  in  sheep's  clothing, 
a  traitor  who  was  trying  to  subvert  his  national 
music  to  the  German  school.  This  wounded  Sme- 
tana, who  loved  his  country  well  and  knew  inti- 


96  MODERN  COMPOSERS   OF  EUROPE 

mately  its  life  and  its  legends;  so  he  determined 
to  produce  a  work  in  lighter  vein,  to  show  that 
he  too  could  employ  the  popular  style.  The  result 
was  "  Prodaiia  Nevesta "  (the  bartered  bride), 
which  has  won  him  renown  in  all  nations,  and  is 
now  considered  the  best  light  opera  since  the  days 
of  Weber. 

The  plot  depends  on  the  incognito  preserved  by 
Hans,  son  of  the  peasant  Micha  by  his  first  wife. 
Driven  away  by  a  stepmother,  he  has  returned 
after  some  years,  to  fall  in  love  with  the  beautiful 
Marenka.  Her  mother  agrees  to  the  proposal  of 
the  marriage  broker,  Kezal,  that  Marenka  should 
wed  Wenzel,  the  half-brother  of  Hans.  The  broker 
offers  to  bribe  Hans  if  he  will  resign  his  claims, 
and  Hans  agrees  on  condition  that  Marenka  should 
marry  "  the  son  of  Micha."  Marenka  is  much 
pained  at  the  apparent  desertion,  but  in  the  end 
Hans  reveals  himself  and  regains  his  sweetheart. 

The  music  to  this  lively  story  is  of  the  most 
delightful  character.  Smetana's  works  as  a  whole 
display  an  exquisite  colour,  a  delicate  elegance,  a 
most  refined  charm.  Not  lacking  in  vigour,  they 
never  become  brutal  by  abuse  of  force;  endowed 
with  inimitable  grace,  they  never  become  affected. 
The  symphonic  poems  at  times  show  the  fault  of 
needless  contrapuntal  complexity,  but  the  "  Bar- 


BOHEMIANS  AND    OTHERS  97 

tered  Bride "  is  altogether  natural,  spontaneous, 
and  bubbling  over  with  the  most  joyous  vivacity. 
It  is  not  surprising  that  in  1892,  on  its  introduc- 
tion to  German  audiences  at  the  Vienna  musical 
exhibition,  every  one  asked,  "  How  is  it  possible 
that  such  a  genius  has  passed  without  recognition 
for  so  long?  " 

A  return  to  the  serious  vein  resulted  in  "  Dali- 
bor,"  produced  in  1868.  The  hero,  who  bears  the 
title  role,  kills  a  tyrannical  count,  is  denounced  by 
the  oppressor's  sister  Mlada,  awakens  her  love  by 
his  manly  bearing,  and  is  consoled  by  her  in  prison. 
She  has  disguised  herself  as  a  youth  to  reach  his 
cell  and  tell  him  of  coming  rescue;  but  the  plans 
are  discovered,  and  Dalibor  condemned  to  die.  The 
people  rush  in  to  save  him,  but  in  the  struggle 
Mlada  is  mortally  wounded,  whereupon  he  resigns 
his  life  willingly.  The  music  of  this  work  has 
been  called  Wagnerian,  but  it  must  not  be  classed 
with  the  overswollen  medleys  of  operatic  noise  that 
are  so  often  and  so  wrongly  named  as  results  of 
the  Bayreuth  master's  lead. 

Of  Smetana's  later  operas,  "  Two  Widows  "  and 
"  The  Kiss "  have  won  much  success  upon  the 
comic  stage.  The  latter,  especially,  is  often  held 
to  be  a  perfect  model  for  light  opera.  In  1882 
came  "  The  Secret,"  another  popular  exponent  of 


98  MODERN  COMPOSERS  OF  EUROPE 

the  same  style.  "  Libusa,"  which  followed  in  1881, 
was  again  a  music-drama  in  loftier  vein.  "  The 
Devil's  Wall,"  a  year  later  in  date,  was  the  last 
of  Smetana's  complete  operas,  and  shows  traces 
of  his  failing  powers.  The  delicate  grace  and 
polyphonic  skill  are  now  replaced  by  an  almost 
childish  simplicity;  yet  there  are  still  to  be  found 
many  passages  of  dramatic  effect.  The  subject  is 
based  on  the  legendary  origin  of  a  natural  wall  of 
rocks,  said  to  have  been  piled  up  by  the  devil  in 
his  efforts  to  divert  a  river  and  flood  a  monastery. 
In  the  "  Carnival  of  Prague  "  and  the  string  quar- 
tette, "  Aus  Meinem  Leben,"  as  in  the  piano  trio 
and  lesser  works,  are  found  all  of  Smetana's  usual 
skill,  combined  with  real  depth  of  feeling;  but  his 
loftiest  work  is  the  cycle  of  symphonic  poems  en- 
titled "Ma  Vlast"  (My  Fatherland),  consisting 
of  six  pictures  from  Bohemian  history  and  legend. 
In  the  first,  "  Vysehrad,"  the  minstrel  Lumir,  in- 
spired by  that  historic  fortress,  evokes  pictures 
of  the  festivals,  the  combats,  and  the  victories  of 
long  ago,  contrasting  them  with  the  desolate  ruins 
that  remain.  Near  at  hand  is  "  Vltava,"  the 
Moldau,  portrayed  in  the  second  poem.  Its  origin 
in  the  peaceful  forest,  its  course  through 
woods  filled  with  joyous  huntsmen,  past  smiling 
meadows  echoing  with  the  rustic  strains  of  wed- 


BOHEMIANS  AND   OTHERS  99 

ding-music,  into  moonlit  scenes  where  sylvan 
nymphs  disport,  to  reflect  the  martial  glories  of 
Prague,  and  at  last  disappear  in  the  distance,  are 
told  in  inspired  measures. 

"  Sarka,"  subject  of  the  third  poem,  is  the 
legendary  amazon  who  charmed  the  male  warriors 
by  her  beauty,  and  drew  them  into  the  ambush 
where  her  comrades  lay  in  wait  for  them.  Bo- 
hemia's groves  and  meadows  offer  an  effective 
pastoral  theme  for  the  fourth  poem.  The  fifth 
depicts  "  Tabor,"  the  camp  of  the  Hussite  war- 
riors, and  is  inspired  by  their  martial  bravery; 
while  the  last  picture,  "  Blanik,"  represents  the 
mountain  upon  which  they  sleep,  ready  to  rise 
again  at  their  country's  need. 

Smetana's  life  was  hardly  one  of  happiness. 
Never  really  strong,  his  excessive  work  brought 
on  nervous  troubles  and  gradual  deafness.  In  1874, 
after  enjoying  an  opera,  his  hearing  left  him  wholly. 
He  was  troubled  by  loud  buzzing  and  roaring  in 
his  head,  and  whistling  noises;  at  a  later  date 
came  a  constantly  recurring  chord,  employed  by 
him  in  the  string  quartette.  Like  Beethoven,  he  did 
not  stop  composing;  in  fact,  his  four  latest  operas 
and  nearly  the  whole  of  "  Ma  Vlast "  were  written 
while  in  this  condition.  The  cold  reception  of 
"  The  Devil's  Wall  "  broke  his  spirit.  A  few  bene- 


IOO  MODERN  COMPOSERS  OF  EUROPE 

fit  performances  helped  him  somewhat,  but  in  1884, 
when  the  whole  nation  honoured  his  sixtieth  birth- 
day with  a  festival,  he  was  a  complete  wreck.  His 
nerves  had  given  way,  and  on  April  20,  1884,  in 
the  Prague  asylum  where  his  friend  Srb  had  placed 
him,  he  died  —  an  artist  of  rare  genius,  whose 
works  were  not  to  receive  their  due  appreciation 
until  many  years  after  his  death. 

The  greatest  of  Smetana's  pupils  and  followers 
was  Antonin  Dvorak.  Dvorak  was  born  September 
8,  1841,  at  Miihlhausen  (Nehalozeves),  in  Bo- 
hemia. His  father  was  a  butcher  by  trade,  and 
wished  to  make  the  boy  follow  in  his  footsteps. 
But  bands  of  wandering  musicians  aroused  his 
ambition,  so  he  persuaded  the  village  schoolmaster 
to  give  him  lessons  in  singing  and  violin,  and  soon 
was  able  to  perform  in  the  church  music  on  Sun- 
days and  holidays.  At  twelve,  he  went  to  a  more 
advanced  school,  at  Zlonitz,  where  he  could  study 
composition.  It  was  while  there  that  he  wrote  a 
polka,  to  surprise  his  relatives.  This  result  he 
certainly  accomplished,  for  he  had  written  without 
considering  the  transposing  instruments,  and  the 
performance  created  fearful  and  wonderful  discords. 

In  1857  he  went  to  Prague,  where  he  spent  three 
years  in  the  organ  school.  The  slight  allowance 
from  his  father  ceased  after  a  time,  and  he  was 


ANTONIN    DVORAK 


BOHEMIANS  AND    OTHERS  IOI 

obliged  to  support  himself,  as  best  he  could,  by 
playing  violin  in  various  cafes.  Soon  he  was  able 
to  win  by  his  compositions  the  state  aid  that  Austria 
granted  to  needy  composers,  —  four,  five,  and  six 
hundred  florins  in  successive  years.  But  better 
even  than  the  financial  aid  was  the  acquaintance 
it  gained  him  with  such  men  as  Herbeck,  Hanslick, 
and  finally  Brahms.  Through  them,  too,  the  pub- 
lishers became  interested  in  him,  and  he  was  able 
to  continue  his  creative  work  without  fear  of  a 
premature  death  from  hunger. 

Of  his  many  compositions  at  this  period, — 
operas,  symphonies,  chamber  music,  —  few  exist 
to-day.  Dvorak  spoke  of  his  time  as  spent  in  "  hard 
study,  occasional  composition,  much  revision,  a 
great  deal  of  thinking,  and  little  eating."  After 
his  marriage,  in  1873,  he  used  to  delight  in  saying 
that  he  ate  less  and  gave  more  lessons  than  ever. 
On  being  asked  if  he  gained  much  from  any  special 
teacher,  he  would  reply,  "  I  studied  with  God,  with 
the  birds,  the  trees,  the  rivers,  myself;  "  an  appro- 
priate response,  for  if  ever  there  was  a  natural 
genius  it  was  certainly  Dvorak. 

He  worshipped  Wagner,  whose  "  Meistersinger  " 
created  a  furor  at  Prague.  He  was  eager  to  write 
an  opera  for  the  new  National  Theatre,  and  pro- 
duced his  "  Konig  und  Kohler."  But  it  was  "  plus 


IO2  MODERN  COMPOSERS  OF  EUROPE 

royaliste  que  le  roi,"  and  its  music  was  infinitely 
harder  and  more  intricate  than  that  of  Wagner. 
It  was  withdrawn,  destroyed,  and  rewritten  in  1875. 
"  Being  now  not  only  easy,"  said  the  composer, 
"  but  national,  instead  of  Wagnerian,  it  had  a  gen- 
uine success." 

Less  purely  national  than  Smetana,  Dvorak  still 
was  influenced  by  the  music  of  his  native  land, 
which  he  loved  with  his  whole  heart.  If  his  themes 
are  his  own  inspired  creation,  rather  than  an  echo 
of  the  melodies  of  his  people,  the  folk-tunes  must 
still  have  played  an  important  part  in  his  de- 
velopment. The  elegiac  "  Dumka  "  and  the  wild 
"  Furiant,"  with  which  he  enriched  the  symphonic 
form,  are  distinctively  national.  Of  his  own 
method  of  composition,  Dvorak  wrote  that  he  would 
play  over  his  musical  ideas  many  times,  until  they 
were  exactly  in  the  shape  he  desired,  after  which 
the  manuscript  work  took  little  time. 

Dvorak's  first  patriotic  work  was  a  patriotic 
hymn,  or  cantata.  There  followed  other  operas,  — 
"Wanda,"  "  Selma  Sedlak,"  "  Turde  Palice," 
"  Dimitri,"  and,  at  a  later  time,  "  The  Jacobins." 
They  have  won  national  fame,  but  little  apprecia- 
tion outside  of  Bohemia.  "  Dimitri,"  because  of 
its  Russian  subject,  bids  fair  to  hold  its  own  in  the 
musical  circles  of  Eastern  Europe.  It  deals  with 


BOHEMIANS  AND   OTHERS  103 

the  fortunes  of  the  pretended  Demetrius,  son  of 
Ivan.  At  the  head  of  the  Polish  forces,  he  appears 
before  Moscow,  is  acclaimed  by  the  people,  and  by 
his  manly  bearing  wins  the  support  of  Marfa,  who 
knows  that  he  is  not  the  real  Demetrius  (her  son), 
but  is  willing  to  have  him  rule.  But  there  are 
conspiracies  against  him,  and  his  wife,  Marina, 
jealous  as  well  as  ambitious,  ultimately  exposes 
him  and  causes  his  doom. 

The  performance  of  Dvorak's  "  Stabat  Mater  " 
in  London,  in  1883,  led  to  the  composer's  sojourn 
in  England.  In  the  next  year  he  conducted  his 
"  Husitzka "  overture,  previously  written  for  the 
opening  of  the  new  Bohemian  theatre  in  Prague. 
In  this  work  his  fiery  patriotism  is  again  in  evi- 
dence, and  it  has  become  a  favourite  concert  selec- 
tion. The  cantata,  "  The  Spectre's  Bride,"  written 
for  the  Birmingham  festival  of  1885,  won  still  more 
marked  success.  It  is  a  Czech  version  of  the  legend 
treated  in  Burger's  "  Lenore."  At  first  the  maiden 
is  seen  mourning  her  lost  parents,  and  praying  for 
her  lover's  return.  He  appears,  and  bids  her  come 
away  with  him.  On  their  wild  midnight  journey 
he  persuades  her  to  throw  away  prayer-book, 
chaplet,  and  crucifix.  Arrived  at  the  churchyard,  he 
leaps  over  the  wall,  making  her  promise  to  follow; 
but  she  takes  fright,  and  hides.  Her  refuge  proves 


104  MODERN  COMPOSERS  OF  EUROPE 

to  be  a  charnel-house,  where  ghosts  and  spectres 
dance  in  frenzied  fashion  about  the  unburied 
corpses.  She  prays  to  the  Virgin,  the  crowing  of 
the  cock  announces  the  dawn,  and  she  is  saved. 

"  Saint  Ludmila,"  written  a  year  later  for  the 
Leeds  festival,  did  not  please  so  well.  It  treats 
of  the  introduction  of  Christianity  among  the 
Czechs,  by  the  Apostle  Ivan.  In  the  first  part 
come  the  heathen  festivities,  brought  to  an  abrupt 
end  by  a  lightning-bolt,  which  shatters  the  idol. 
Then  the  Princess  Ludmila,  who  has  bowed  to  the 
might  of  the  cross,  is  married  to  Duke  Borivoj,  and 
the  piece  concludes  with  their  wedding-feast  at  the 
castle  Velehrad.  It  may  have  been  the  partial 
failure  of  this  work  which  caused  the  composer  to 
leave  England  afterward,  and  to  remark  that  "  the 
English  do  not  love  music;  they  respect  it."  If 
so,  then  England's  loss  was  our  gain,  for  in  1892 
Dvorak  came  to  New  York  to  lead  the  National 
Conservatory  of  Music. 

By  this  time  his  great  works  were  fairly  numer- 
ous, and  familiar  to  many  concert  audiences.  They 
included  the  overtures,  "  Mein  Heim,"  "  Othello," 
"  In  der  Natur,"  and  the  "  Carneval ;  "  four  great 
symphonies,  not  including  the  discarded  works  of 
his  youth ;  the  famous  "  Slavic  Dances,"  the 
Slavonic  Rhapsodies,  and  the  "  Scherzo  Capric- 


BOHEMIANS  AND    OTHERS  105 

cioso ; "  three  orchestral  ballades,  a  Hero  Song 
(the  origin  of  "  Heldenleben?  "),  and  much  beauti- 
ful chamber  and  piano  music. 

Dvorak  had  always  held  to  his  ideas  of  nation- 
alism in  music,  and  now  his  sojourn  in  America 
inspired  him  to  show  how  the  songs  of  that  country 
might  be  employed  in  building  up  ah  American 
school.  Performed  first  in  1893,  his  glorious 
symphony,  "  Aus  der  Neuen  Welt"  (From  the 
New  World),  still  possesses  all  its  pristine  fresh- 
ness and  beauty.  The  lively  allegro,  the  infinitely 
sweet  largo,  the  bright  scherzo,  and  the  powerful 
•finale  make  up  a  work  of  eternal  charm. 

Dvorak  was  certainly  wise  in  his  choice  of  ma- 
terial for  this  symphony.  While  our  native  com- 
posers were  running  amuck  on  outlandish  Indian 
themes  that  had  no  beauty  in  themselves  and  were 
often  based  on  different  scales  from  our  own,  he 
went  directly  to  the  music  of  our  plantations,  and 
drew  from  it  themes  that  would  appeal  straight  to 
the  heart  of  his  hearers.  In  doing  this  he  followed 
the  only  true  path  to  success  in  musical  nationalism. 
A  school  is  not  built  from  above  downward,  any 
more  than  a  house  is  begun  at  the  roof.  The  foun- 
dation must  be  there  before  the  superstructure  can 
be  raised;  and  in  the  musical  edifice  the  only  sure 
foundation  is  the  folk-music,  the  songs  that  are 


IO6  MODERN  COMPOSERS  OF  EUROPE 

sung  and  felt  and  loved  by  all  the  people.  When 
these  are  employed  by  the  great  composers  to  build 
their  beautiful  structures  of  orchestral  or  vocal 
architecture,  then  a  worthy  school  is  produced  — 
one  whose  works  are  not  artificial  creations,  but 
appeal  directly  to  the  love  of  a  nation  or  a  race. 
If  our  popular  music  is  still  vastly  below  that  of 
Germany,  Bohemia,  or  Russia,  Dvorak  showed  that 
we  have  at  least  one  variety  of  it  that  is  worthy 
and  valuable.  His  American  string  quartette  em- 
phasized the  fact  still  more,  and  his  "  American 
Flag  "  cantata,  if  not  so  great,  is  another  tasteful 
tribute  to  our  nation. 

In  1895,  love  of  country  proved  too  strong  for 
the  composer,  and  he  returned  to  his  native  land, 
where  habit  and  memory  took  him  to  the  same 
house  in  which  he  had  dwelt  before,  in  a  busy  quarter 
of  Prague.  There,  amid  familiar  scenes  and  faces, 
he  gave  up  writing  foreign  symphonies  and  can- 
tatas, to  devote  himself  wholly  to  opera,  which  had 
won  him  renown  in  his  own  nation.  The  new 
romantic  school,  awakened  by  "  Hansel  and  Gretel," 
had  made  itself  felt  in  Bohemia  as  elsewhere,  and 
Dvorak,  too,  began  to  produce  Volksopern.  "  Ru- 
salka,  the  Water  Nixie,"  won  a  success  at  the 
National  Theatre  in  1901.  Another  work  that 
received  some  notice  was  "  Der  Teufel  und  die 


BOHEMIANS  AND    OTHERS 

Kathe,"  in  which  a  beautiful  but  cold-hearted  vil- 
lage girl,  refused  by  all  others,  is  willing  to  dance 
with  the  devil  himself,  but  is  afterward  rescued 
from  his  clutches  by  a  faithful  shepherd.  Other 
works  in  this  field  were  planned  by  the  composer, 
including  the  successful  "  Armida,"  when  suddenly 
the  world  learned  that  on  May  i,  1904,  he  was 
stricken  with  apoplexy,  and  had  passed  away  at  the 
age  of  sixty-three. 

Though  his  ideals  were  national,  Dvorak's  gifts 
were  such  that  he  won  the  worship  of  the  entire 
musical  world.  He  possessed  an  endless  fund  of 
melody,  always  fresh,  always  quaintly  individual, 
never  cheap  or  commonplace.  He  showed  exquisite 
mastery  of  the  varying  colours  of  the  orchestra, 
from  the  most  delicate  touches  to  the  broadest 
strokes.  His  music  was  eminently  sane,  robust, 
healthy.  So,  too,  was  his  personality,  as  acknowl- 
edged by  all  who  came  in  contact  with  him, 
at  New  York  or  elsewhere.  His  was  a  genius  that 
can  ill  be  spared,  in  a  period  when  our  great  sym- 
phonists  are  leading  us  astray  on  the  path  of  morbid 
programmes  pictured  by  arbitrary  tonal  devices. 

A  name  famous  in  Bohemia,  though  less  well 
known  outside,  is  that  of  Zdenko  Fibich.  Born  at 
Vseborics  in  1851,  he  studied  music  at  Vienna  and 
Prague,  afterwards  going  to  Leipzig.  There  he  wrote 


108  MODERN  COMPOSERS  OF  EUROPE 

many  pieces,  including  a  symphony,  and  became 
a  warm  admirer  of  Schumann.  After  further  study 
at  Paris  and  Mannheim,  he  returned  to  his  native 
land,  and  soon  made  Prague  his  home.  After  a  few 
years  of  conducting,  he  devoted  himself  wholly  to 
composition,  producing  a  formidable  list  of  works. 

He  is  credited  with  two  published  symphonies, 
and  a  number  of  symphonic  poems,  which  show  the 
influence  of  Liszt.  Among  the  latter  are  "  Othello," 
"  Der  Lenz,"  "  Der  Sturm  "  (Shakespeare's  "  Tem- 
pest '?),«*  Die  Vigilien,"  and  "  Am  Abend,"  as  well 
as  other  subjects  of  more  purely  national  interest. 
There  are  also  overtures,  —  "  Eine  Nacht  auf  Karl- 
stein,"  for  the  historical  comedy  of  Jaroslav  Vrch- 
litzky,  the  "  Lustpiel  "  and  "  Komensky  -  Fest  " 
overtures,  and  two  others  without  special  titles. 
These,  with  an  extensive  series  of  chamber  and 
choral  works,  songs,  and  various  instrumental 
pieces,  not  to  mention  an  orchestral  suite,  are  cer- 
tainly enough  to  establish  Fibich's  reputation  for 
industry. 

Yet  it  is  upon  the  operatic  stage  that  he  has 
won  his  chief  laurels.  He  devoted  much  earnest 
effort  to  the  field  of  melodrama,  at  first  employing 
Schumann's  "  Manfred  "  as  a  model,  then  adopting 
a  more  independent  style.  Of  the  half-dozen  single 
works  in  this  form,  his  "  Weihnachtstag,"  "  Der 


BOHEMIANS  AND    OTHERS  1 09 

Blumen  Rache,"  "Die  Ewigkeit,"  and  "  Konigin 
Emma  "  are  written  for  piano,  while  "  Der  Wasser- 
mann  "  and  "  Hakon  Jarl  "  have  orchestral  accom- 
paniments. More  ambitious  still  is  the  trilogy 
"  Hippodamia,"  consisting  of  "  The  Wooing  of 
Pelops,"  "  The  Atonement  of  Tantalus,"  and  "  Hip- 
podamia's  Death." 

In  opera,  Fibich  is  reckoned  a  close  second  to 
Smetana,  and  like  that  earlier  master  he  adopted 
a  national  style  in  his  music.  His  first  work, 
"  Bukovin,"  with  a  poor  text,  shows  some  skill  in 
motives,  but  no  real  grasp  of  the  modern  resources. 
"  Blanik,"  on  the  same  subject  as  Smetana's  tone- 
poem,  is  a  Wagnerian  imitation  of  the  "  Sturm 
und  Drang  "  period.  "  Die  Braut  von  Messina," 
after  Schiller's  poem,  shows  much  beauty,  and  more 
detail.  "  Der  Sturm  "  is  a  stage  setting  of  "  The 
Tempest,"  with  much  cleverness  in  adopting  Wag- 
ner's later  style,  while  "  Hedy  "  draws  its  subject 
from  another  English  poem,  this  time  Byron's 
"  Corsair."  "  Sarka  "  is  again  on  a  native  subject, 
and  gives  a  glowing  picture  of  the  adventures  of 
this  noble  amazon,  who  is  here  depicted  as  not 
wholly  heartless,  but  ready  to  save  the  knight  whom 
she  has  charmed  into  ambush,  and  who  has  suc- 
ceeded in  winning  her  love.  Fibich  died  in  1900, 


I  JO  MODERN  COMPOSERS   OF  EUROPE 

before  the  production  of  his  last  opera,  "  Pad 
Arkuna." 

Lest  it  be  suspected  from  the  foregoing  that 
Bohemia's  great  composers  are  all  dead,  mention 
must  be  made  at  once  of  Emil  Nikolaus,  Freiherr 
von  Reznicek.  As  his  name  implies,  he  comes  of 
high  family,  his  father  having  been  lieutenant-field- 
marshal,  and  his  mother  the  Princess  Clarissa 
Ghika.  His  parents  desired  Emil  to  follow  the 
legal  profession,  and  for  a  time  he  obeyed  their 
wishes.  But  soon  the  love  of  music  grew  too  strong, 
and  he  became  a  pupil  of  the  Leipzig  conservatory. 
He  went  through  the  usual  training  of  holding 
small  positions  in  theatres,  leading  successively  (and 
successfully)  at  Graz,  Zurich,  Mainz,  Stettin, 
Weimar,  and  finally  Mannheim. 

Among  his  compositions  are  many  songs  and 
piano  pieces,  a  string  quartette,  two  symphonic  suites, 
a  "  Lustspiel  "  overture ;  also,  in  manuscript,  a  six- 
voiced  requiem,  a  new  overture  to  "  Till  Eulen- 
spiegel,"  a  Mass,  a  Tragic  Symphony,  and  the  four 
songs  for  tenor  and  orchestra,  entitled  "  Ruhm  und 
Ewigkeit,"  which  were  brought  out  at  the  1904 
Frankfort  festival. 

In  the  case  of  Reznicek,  too,  his  operas  have  won 
decidedly  more  fame  than  his  purely  orchestral 
works.  Produced  at  Prague,  their  delicious  liveliness 


BOHEMIANS  AND   OTHERS  III 

and  real  musical  worth  have  made  them  known  in 
many  other  lands.  "  Die  Jungfrau  von  Orleans  " 
came  first,  with  text  adapted  from  Schiller's  play. 
"  Satanella  "  was  based  on  an  epic  of  like  name, 
by  Vrchlitzky.  "  Emerich  Fortunat  "  won  a  suc- 
cess in  lighter  vein,  but  Reznicek's  real  masterpiece 
was  the  delightful  setting  of  Moreto's  sparkling 
comedy,  "  Donna  Diana."  In  1904  the  com- 
poser came  again  before  the  operatic  public  with  his 
recently  written  "  Till  Eulenspiegel."  In  this  work, 
the  mercurial  Till,  besides  being  as  great  a  rogue 
as  ever,  becomes  something  of  a  hero  by  leading 
the  peasants  against  the  robber  barons.  Reznicek 
has  begun  work  on  a  sixth  opera,  with  text  adapted 
from  Scribe  by  himself  and  E.  von  Wolzogen.  He 
writes  that  he  is  making  Charlottenburg  his  home, 
and  devoting  himself  wholly  to  composition,  but 
he  modestly  refrains  from  alluding  to  the  many 
successes  won  by  his  works. 

Josef  Suk,  born  in  1874,  became  the  pupil  and 
son-in-law  of  Dvorak,  but  has  won  renown  in  his 
own  right.  Among  his  works  are  numbered  a 
Dramatic  Overture,  the  "  Winter's  Tale  "  overture,  a 
symphony  in  E,  a  string  serenade,  the  orchestral 
suite  "  A  Fairy  Tale,"  a  string  quartette,  a  piano 
quartette,  and  many  songs.  Suk  is  second  violinist 


112  MODERN  COMPOSERS   OF  EUROPE 

in  the  famous  Bohemian  String  Quartette,  an  organ- 
ization known  throughout  Europe. 

Of  other  composers  in  Bohemia,  Roskosny,  the 
eldest,  has  won  renown  through  his  seven  operas 
and  many  choral  works.  Oscar  Nedbal,  viola  player 
in  the  Bohemian  Quartette,  is  responsible  for  an  or- 
chestral scherzo.  Heinrich  Kaan  von  Albest  has 
produced  the  symphonic  poem  "  Sakuntala,"  and 
several  ballets,  besides  being  a  writer  of  note.  Josef 
Nesvera  won  a  triumph  with  his  opera  "  Perdita/' 
given  at  Prague  in  1897,  while  his  masses  and  other 
sacred  orchestral  works  are  well  received  also. 

Hungary  has  no  world-famous  composer  at 
present,  but  the  name  of  Liszt  will  bring  her  lasting 
glory.  Goldmark  was  born  in  Hungary,  but  has 
German  ideas,  German  ideals,  and  German  citizen- 
ship. The  first  opera  in  Hungarian  was  Ruzsicska's 
"  Fuite  de  Bela,"  but  Ferencz  (or  Franz)  Erkel, 
who  died  in  1893,  is  considered  the  real  founder  of 
the  national  school.  His  "  Hunyadi  Laszlo  "  and 
"  Bank  Ban "  were  immensely  popular,  although 
"  Georg  Brancovics,"  a  later  work,  was  not  so  well 
received.  His  son,  Alexander,  produced  "  Tempe- 
foi,"  at  Pesth,  in  1883.  Mihalovitch  is  another 
Hungarian  who  has  won  national  fame  in  opera, 
as  well  as  by  producing  symphonies  and  or- 
chestral ballads.  The  Doppler  brothers  also  de- 


BOHEMIANS  AND    OTHERS  113 

serve  mention.  Count  Geza  Zichy  has  gained 
much  success  with  his  operas,  "  Meister  Roland  " 
and  "  Emma "  being  his  important  productions. 
Jeno  Hubay,  of  Buda-Pesth,  is  credited  with  a 
symphony  and  several  operas,  besides  a  large  amount 
of  piano  and  vocal  music. 

Ernst  von  Dohnanyi,  born  at  Pressburg,  Hun- 
gary, July  27,  1877,  is  also  famous  as  pianist  and 
composer.  His  father,  besides  being  professor  of 
mathematics  and  physics  at  the  local  Gymnasium, 
was  a  good  'cello  player,  and  the  child  soon  found 
endless  amusement  in  giving  make-believe  concerts, 
with  a  row  of  chairs  for  audience.  The  mere  writ- 
ing of  notes  on  music  paper  pleased  him  immensely, 
but  he  soon  began  to  compose  short  pieces  also. 
What  was  more  wonderful,  these  pieces  indicated 
a  natural  knowledge  of  good  harmony.  After 
various  studies,  he  decided,  in  1894,  to  adopt  a 
musical  career,  and  he  began  lessons  with  Koessler 
at  the  Hungarian  Academy.  The  young  student 
was  at  first  a  devotee  of  Schumann,  but  has  since 
then  become  an  ardent  worshipper  of  Brahms.  An 
early  overture,  "  Zrinyi,"  won  a  royal  prize,  and  in 
later  years  his  piano  concerto  and  D  minor  sym- 
phony have  proven  to  be  worthy  works,  if  we  accept 
the  school  of  microscopic  seriousness  that  has  come 
down  to  us  as  a  legacy  from  Brahms  and  Bruckner. 


I  14  MODERN  COMPOSERS  OF  EUROPE 

Poland  is  worthily  represented  by  the  famous 
Paderewski,  whose  well-known  supremacy  as  a 
pianist  has  not  prevented  him  from  earning  laurels 
as  a  composer.  His  very  popular  minuet  was  the 
first  of  many  original  and  brilliant  piano  pieces, 
including  the  "  Humoresques  "  (Op.  14).  A  Polish 
fantasia,  with  orchestra,  marked  his  entrance  into 
the  concerto  field,  while  his  gipsy  opera,  "  Manru," 
if  not  holding  the  boards  too  well,  contains  much 
excellent  music.  The  value  of  the  Gypsy  music 
is  hardly  realized  except  by  the  student,  though  the 
echoes  of  it  found  in  the  works  of  Schubert  and 
Liszt  bear  witness  to  the  worth  of  this  popular 
school.  Miecislaw  Soltys,  of  Lemberg,  who  studied 
with  Chopin's  pupil,  Mikuli,  has  gained  some  notice 
in  the  symphonic  field,  while  Stalkowsky  has  won 
operatic  laurels  with  his  "  Philsenis." 


CHAPTER   V. 

THE    ELDER    FRENCHMEN 

UNDOUBTEDLY  the  greatest  name  in  the  last  few 
decades  of  French  music  is  that  of  Charles-Camille 
Saint-Saens.  Born  in  Paris  on  October  9,  1835, 
he  belongs  to  that  older  generation  that  witnessed 
the  rise  and  fall  of  Meyerbeer,  and  the  triumph 
of  Gounod.  His  reputation  was  established  before 
the  advent  of  the  Wagner  creed  in  France,  and 
just  as  Dvorak  and  Grieg  exemplify  the  music  of 
Bohemia  and  Norway,  so  he  too  possesses  a  great- 
ness all  his  own  in  his  native  land. 

Yet  his  style  is  hard  to  characterize.  From  his 
facility  in  adopting  the  most  widely  diverse  man- 
ners of  musical  writing,  he  has  been  called  the 
Proteus  of  modern  music.  Yet  through  all  the 
disguises  he  may  assume,  there  is  still  a  well-marked 
individuality  to  be  found.  His  facility  of  expres- 
sion, his  breadth  of  understanding  and  versatility  of 
taste  have  sometimes  made  it  seem  as  if  he  lacked 
a  definite  personality ;  but  his  marvellous  mastery  of 

"5 


Il6  MODERN  COMPOSERS   OF  EUROPE 

technique,  combined  with  a  clearness  of  style  that 
almost  makes  one  overlook  his  erudition,  impart  to 
his  works  an  ease  and  a  fluency  that  is  unmistakably 
his  own.  His  is  the  art  of  concealing  art,  or  at 
least  of  making  it  minister  to  legitimate  musical 
effects  without  becoming  too  obtrusive. 

His  is  a  true  musical  development,  founded  on 
rational  lines.  A  warm  admirer  of  Bach,  Beethoven, 
Mozart,  and  other  classicists,  he  can  still  under- 
stand and  appreciate  Liszt  and  other  modern  tone- 
poets.  But  he  has  not,  like  some  of  them,  thrown 
over  the  older  melodic  simplicity  to  struggle  fran- 
tically in  the  sea  of  tone  that  gushed  forth  at  Bay- 
reuth  and  inundated  the  world.  When  compared 
with  the  meaningless  ravings  of  some  of  the  latter- 
day  French  harmony- jugglers,  his  works  show  the 
most  exquisite  shapeliness,  like  that  of  a  finely 
carved  monument  enriched  by  delicate  artistic 
tracery.  Yet  they  are  not  bound  by  the  formal 
fetters  of  the  past,  and  their  freedom  of  expression 
is  complete. 

Saint-Saens  was  brought  up  by  his  mother,  as 
his  father  died  soon  after  the  child's  birth.  The 
little  Camille  received  piano  lessons  from  his  great- 
aunt  at  the  mature  age  of  two  years  and  a  half.  At 
seven  he  was  confided  to  the  excellent  teacher 
Stamaty,  and  his  later  work  with  Maleden,  Halevy, 


CHARLES -CAMILLE    SAINT  -  SAE'NS. 


and  Benoist  gave  him  a  start  in  harmony,  compo- 
sition, and  organ-playing.  Two  trials  for  the  Prix 
de  Rome  resulted  in  two  failures  —  a  fact  that 
reminds  one  of  the  four  attempts  necessary  for 
Berlioz.  Great  musicians  are  not  always  recog- 
nized in  their  youth,  as  witness  the  refusal  of  Easily 
to  admit  the  young  Verdi  to  the  Milan  conserva- 
tory. 

His  musical  activity  began  in  1851,  when  he  pro- 
duced his  first  symphony  at  the  age  of  sixteen.  Two 
years  later  he  became  organist  at  the  church  of 
St.  Mery,  where  he  served  five  years  before  taking 
a  similar  post  at  the  Madeleine.  In  the  latter  posi- 
tion he  won  great  renown  by  his  remarkable  im- 
provisations. He  resigned  in  1877,  in  favour  of 
Dubois.  He  was  for  some  time  teacher  of  piano 
at  Niedermeyer's  ficole  Religieuse,  and  he  has  de- 
voted his  spare  moments  to  writing  and  criticism, 
but  the  world  knows  him  best  as  the  most  gifted 
composer  of  his  native  land.  Like  Meyerbeer, 
Goldmark,  and  Mendelssohn,  he  is  of  Jewish 
descent,  and  like  them  he  has  proven  that  Wagner's 
fierce  attack  on  Judaism  in  music  was  wholly  need- 
less and  unfounded. 

Of  the  many  forms  of  composition,  opera  cer- 
tainly seems  to  make  the  strongest  appeal  to  French- 
men, and  we  find  them  all  striving  for  fame  in  this 


Il8  MODERN  COMPOSERS   OF  EUROPE 

field.  But  Saint-Saens  found  difficulty  in  obtaining 
a  hearing,  for  his  concert  successes  and  his  great 
musical  learning  brought  him  under  the  horrid  sus- 
picion of  harbouring  Wagnerian  tendencies.  His 
debut  as  a  stage  composer  did  not  take  place  until 
1872,  with  the  appearance  of  the  one-act  "  Prin- 
cesse  Jaune."  "  Le  Timbre  d'Argent,"  an  earlier 
work  with  a  brilliant  overture,  was  not  given  until 
some  years  later.  But  France  did  not  take  kindly 
to  either,  so  he  sent  "  Samson  and  Dalila,"  his 
next  great  opera,  to  Weimar,  where  it  was  pro- 
duced, with  the  approval  of  Liszt,  in  1877. 

In  the  opinion  of  many,  this  biblical  work,  with 
its  vivid  richness  of  colour,  remains  the  composer's 
dramatic  masterpiece.  His  many  subsequent  com- 
positions for  the  stage  show  great  musical  beauty, 
but  seem  to  lack  the  dramatic  spirit  that  is  essential 
for  operatic  vitality.  The  ease  with  which  Saint- 
Saens  assimilates  all  styles  has  made  his  operas  too 
composite  in  effect,  and  not  sufficiently  unified.  "  Le 
Deluge  "  was  an  operatic  cantata  on  another  sacred 
subject.  "  fitienne  Marcel  "  won  some  measure  of 
appreciation  in  Paris,  while  "  Henry  VIII.,"  with  its 
skilful  blending  of  old-time  suavity  and  modern 
guiding  motives,  has  received  praise  in  Germany  as 
well,  "  Proserpine  "  and  "  Ascanio  "  followed,  the 
latter  a  setting  of  Benvenuto  Cellini's  drama. 


THE  ELDER   FRENCHMEN  IIQ 

"  Phryne  "  was  a  return  to  the  older  opera-comique, 
showing  much  grace  and  daintiness,  while  "  Pary- 
satis,"  as  its  title  suggests,  portrays  an  ancient 
Oriental  subject. 

A  novelty  in  effect  was  the  music  to  Gallet's 
"  Dejanire,"  given  at  Beziers  in  1898.  The  per- 
formance took  place  in  the  open  air,  the  cast  in- 
cluding an  orchestra  of  two  hundred  and  fifty,  a 
chorus  of  two  hundred,  and  a  ballet  of  sixty.  A 
recent  opera  for  the  Orange  amphitheatre  is  "  Les 
Barbares,"  another  bit  of  scenic  display.  This 
work  deals  with  the  attack  of  the  barbarian  Ger- 
mans on  the  Roman  forces  at  Orange  in  the  first 
century  before  Christ.  A  prologue,  describing  the 
progress  of  the  invaders,  has  been  adapted  for  use 
as  a  concert  overture.  In  the  opera,  the  Germans 
have  defeated  the  garrison,  and  their  leader,  Mar- 
comir,  has  slain  the  consul  Euryalus.  But  his 
widow,  Livia,  still  lives,  and  swears  to  avenge  her 
husband.  Marcomir  falls  in  love  with  Floria,  the 
beautiful  priestess  of  Vesta,  and  she  consents  to 
follow  him  if  he  will  spare  all  who  remain  alive 
in  the  town.  As  they  prepare  to  depart,  Livia, 
suspecting  that  Marcomir  is  the  slayer  of  Euryalus, 
cries,  "  I  will  slay  the  coward  who  stabbed  my 
husband  in  the  back."  Marcomir,  trapped  by  the 
ruse,  replies,  "  It  was  in  the  heart."  "  In  the  heart, 


I2O  MODERN  COMPOSERS  OF  EUROPE 

then,"  responds  Livia,  and  stabs  Marcomir,  who 
falls  dead. 

Saint-Saens's  most  recent  dramatic  work  is  the 
one-act  "  Helene,"  produced  in  1904  at  Monte  Carlo. 
The  plot  is  not  of  the  greatest,  but  contains  a  series 
of  effective  scenes.  Helen  of  Troy  bewails  the 
evils  caused  by  her  too  potent  charms,  when  Venus 
appears  and  urges  the  suit  of  Paris.  Finally  the 
Trojan  shepherd  himself  arrives,  and  in  a  fiery 
love-scene  Helen  gradually  yields  to  his  pleading. 
Pallas  then  appears,  to  warn  them  of  coming  woe, 
and  in  a  vision  they  see  the  city  of  Troy  in  flames. 
But  love  proves  more  potent  than  fears  for  the 
future,  and  the  pair  depart,  heedless  of  the  warn- 
ing. The  music  to  this  plot,  like  much  of  Saint- 
Saens's  operatic  work,  shows  a  surety  and  skill 
in  handling  the  orchestra,  a  keenness  in  seizing 
every  dramatic  opportunity  afforded  by  the  libretto, 
and  a  mastery  of  varied  emotional  expression;  but 
in  the  end  the  effect  is  studied  rather  than  natural, 
as  if  it  were  the  work  of  a  prodigious  talent  rather 
than  a  great  genius. 

On  the  concert  stage,  however,  the  symphonic 
style  is  thoroughly  in  place,  and  it  is  there  that 
the  composer  has  won  his  greatest  triumphs.  The 
symphony  of  his  youth  has  been  followed  by  four 
others,  some  of  which  introduce  piano  and  organ 


THE   ELDER  FRENCHMEN  121 

as  an  integral  part  of  the  orchestra.  Of  the  five 
piano  concertos,  that  in  G  minor,  with  its  clean- 
cut  andante,  exquisitely  delicate  allegretto,  and 
brilliant  presto,  has  become  a  favourite  with  concert 
pianists.  There  are  two  orchestral  suites  by  him, 
a  Christmas  oratorio,  two  masses,  the  ode  "  La 
Lyre  et  la  Harpe  "  (written  for  Birmingham),  and 
a  vast  number  of  lesser  works  for  voice,  piano,  and 
organ. 

Of  the  four  symphonic  poems,  "  La  Jeunesse 
d'Hercule,"  shows  its  hero  resisting  the  seductions 
of  nymphs  and  bacchantes,  and  choosing  the  path 
of  struggle  and  combat  that  leads  to  the  reward  of 
immortal  glory.  "  Le  Rouet  d'Omphale,"  that  deli- 
cious orchestral  spinning-song,  gives  a  picture  of 
feminine  seductiveness,  the  triumphant  struggle  of 
weakness  against  strength.  "  Phaeton  "  portrays 
that  ambitious  youth's  vain  attempt  to  drive  the 
chariot  of  the  sun  through  the  heavens,  and  his 
consequent  death.  The  "  Danse  Macabre,"  no  longer 
on  a  Grecian  subject,  depicts  Death  rising  from  the 
ground  and  fiddling  for  the  nocturnal  dance  of  the 
skeletons.  The  diminished  fifth  on  his  instrument, 
the  use  of  the  xylophone  to  represent  the  rattling 
bones  of  the  dancers,  and  the  crowing  of  the  cock 
on  the  oboe,  are  orchestral  devices  as  effective  as 
they  are  familiar. 


122  MODERN  COMPOSERS  OF  EUROPE 

Saint-Saens  is  a  man  of  remarkably  interesting 
personality.  His  wit  is  no  less  remarkable  than  his 
learning,  and  his  keen  musical  judgment  makes  him 
a  critic  whose  words  command  the  utmost  respect. 
His  "  Harmonic  et  Melodic "  and  "  Portraits  et 
Souvenirs "  are  two  books  that  interest  all  their 
readers.  "  Problemes  et  Mysteres "  deals  with 
metaphysics,  while  "  Rimes  Familieres  "  is  a  collec- 
tion of  his  poems.  His  power  of  improvisation, 
already  mentioned,  makes  him  much  sought  after, 
and  there  is  a  story  of  his  becoming  so  enwrapped 
in  his  musical  thoughts,  at  an  evening  party,  that 
he  kept  on  playing  until  long  after  guests  had  de- 
parted and  host  retired,  realizing  only  at  the  end 
that  the  room  was  empty.  He  is  a  great  traveller, 
and  will  disappear  suddenly  for  weeks  at  a  time. 
Of  late  he  has  become  interested  in  astronomy,  and 
built  an  observatory  in  the  Canary  Islands. 

Jules  fimile  Frederic  Massenet  is  another  re- 
nowned Frenchman  who  has  not  been  carried  away 
by  the  harmonic  vagaries  of  the  present.  In  place 
of  the  varying  styles  and  forms  employed  by  Saint- 
Saens,  Massenet  displays  a  more  clearly  defined 
manner.  He  is  the  chief  exponent  of  the  school 
that  aims  to  charm.  With  him,  sentiment  is  every- 
thing —  not  a  feeling  of  calm  contemplation,  like 
that  of  Gounod,  but  a  passionate  warmth  that  moves 


JULES    EMILE    FREDERIC    MASSENET. 


THE   ELDER   FRENCHMEN 


all  hearers.  He  shows  at  times  a  trace  of  the  Wag- 
nerian  influence,  but  remains  essentially  French,  in 
the  most  thorough  sense  of  the  word.  He  is  the 
logical  successor  of  Gounod,  and  like  that  master 
he  devotes  much  of  his  time  to  the  portrayal  of 
the  "  eternal  feminine." 

Massenet  was  born  at  Montreaux,  on  May  12, 
1842.  His  first  piano  lessons  were  given  him  by  his 
mother,  when  he  reached  the  age  of  six.  In  due 
time  he  entered  the  Conservatoire,  where  he  took 
first  prize  for  piano  and  fugue,  and  won  the  Prix 
de  Rome  with  his  cantata,  "  David  Rizzio."  The 
two  years  spent  by  him  at  the  Villa  Medici  were 
instrumental  in  awakening  profound  artistic  im- 
pulses in  the  young  student,  and  he  always  reverts 
to  them  with  pleasure.  The  poverty  of  his  con- 
servatory days,  when  he  earned  his  bread  by  playing 
the  kettle-drum  in  small  cafe  orchestras,  was  now 
somewhat  alleviated,  for  he  married  a  woman  of 
some  fortune. 

His  genius  for  composition  had  not  been  recog- 
nized at  first,  for  in  his  twelfth  year  he  had  been 
rejected  by  Bazin  as  destitute  of  talent.  On  his 
return  to  P'aris  he  began  the  series  of  successes  that 
have  made  him  probably  the  most  popular  composer 
in  France.  His  first  great  triumph  came  with 
"  Marie  Madeleine  "  and  "  Eve,"  which  were  not 


124  MODERN  COMPOSERS  OF  EUROPE 

oratorios,  but  sacred  dramas,  in  which  the  formal 
style  was  replaced  by  music  of  the  most  luscious 
sweetness  and  alluring  charm.  These  works  do 
not  follow  the  biblical  story  exactly,  but  aim  to 
colour  the  original  version  with  modern  spirit  and 
passion.  "  La  Vierge  "  and  "  La  Terre  Promise," 
of  later  date,  are  written  in  the  same  style. 

In  the  purely  orchestral  field,  Massenet  is  hardly 
the  equal  of  Saint-Saens,  but  he  has  still  won  his 
meed  of  fame.  The  overture  "  Phedre,"  dating 
from  1870,  is  one  of  his  greatest  works,  and  his 
orchestral  suites  form  a  series  of  attractive  tone- 
pictures.  The  best  known  are  perhaps  the  "  Scenes 
Pittoresques,"  some  delightful  sketches  of  rural  life 
in  France;  while  Neapolitan,  Alsatian,  and  Hun- 
garian subjects  are  also  depicted  in  other  works. 
A  large  number  of  lesser  pieces  for  voice  and  piano 
display  in  excellent  fashion  the  sentimental  power 
that  marks  their  composer's  musical  individuality. 

In  the  operatic  field,  "  La  Grand'  Tante  "  and 
"  Don  Cesar  de  Bazan  "  were  early  works,  of  little 
moment.  Massenet's  first  great  success  was  "  Le 
Roi  de  Lahore,"  produced  in  1877.  It  deals  with 
the  love  of  Alim  for  the  East  Indian  priestess  Sita, 
and  the  desire  of  the  powerful  Scindia  to  gain  her 
for  himself  in  marriage.  The  discarded  Scindia 
strikes  down  Alim  in  battle;  the  latter  does  not 


THE   ELDER  FRENCHMEN  12$ 

disappear,  however,  but  in  the  Oriental  paradise 
begs  Indra  that  he  may  return.  He  is  allowed  to 
go  back,  but  must  die  when  Sita's  life  ends.  Scindia's 
pursuit  grows  so  oppressive  that  Sita  stabs  herself, 
and  Alim  then  dies  permanently.  The  peculiar  style 
of  the  composer  is  well  suited  to  this  subject,  and  the 
scene  of  the  Indian  paradise  is  especially  rich  in 
effect. 

"  Herodiade,"  produced  at  Brussels  in  1881,  re- 
verts to  a  sacred  subject.  How  accurately  it  follows 
the  scriptural  story  may  be  judged  from  the  words 
of  a  critic :  "  It  adheres  to  the  biblical  version  quite 
closely,  the  chief  number  being  a  love-duet  between 
Herodiade  and  John  the  Baptist  in  prison !  "  The 
music  possesses  all  Massenet's  customary  beauty  of 
style,  and  in  this  work,  as  in  the  oratorio-drama, 
he  has  gone  far  toward  founding  a  special  school. 

A  few  years  later  came  "  Manon,"  based  on 
the  Abbe  Prevost's  novel.  The  story  of  that  frail 
beauty  and  her  weak-willed  lover,  who  allow  them- 
selves to  be  dominated  by  events  in  the  most  patient 
fashion,  is  set  to  music  of  the  most  delicate  charm, 
which  illustrates  the  varying  phases  of  the  libretto 
with  consummate  skill.  By  many  this  is  consid- 
ered Massenet's  operatic  masterpiece. 

"  Le  Cid,"  brought  out  in  1885,  proved  a  rather 
weak  affair,  the  composer's  style  being  unsuited  to 


126  MODERN  COMPOSERS  OF  EUROPE 

a  heroic  subject.  Yet  the  work  had  its  measure  of 
success,  at  least  in  Paris.  "  Esclarmonde,"  appear- 
ing four  years  later,  was  a  much  stronger  opera.  Its 
plot  is  of  the  romantic  school,  and  introduces  a 
heroine  whose  charms  of  person  are  reenforced  by 
charms  of  magic,  learned  from  her  father,  the  Em- 
peror of  Byzantium.  She  falls  in  love  with  the 
knight  Roland,  who  is  to  marry  the  daughter  of 
the  French  king.  She  draws  him  to  her  enchanted 
isle,  where  he  yields  to  her  beauty.  She  gives  him 
the  sword  of  St.  George,  which  will  win  him  vic- 
tory as  long  as  he  keeps  their  love  a  secret.  He 
saves  Blois  for  the  French  king,  but  declines  his 
daughter's  hand.  Unfortunately  he  reveals  the 
reason  to  the  bishop,  whereupon  Esclarmonde  and 
her  spirits  must  vanish.  But  the  attractive  and  by 
no  means  wholly  wicked  sorceress  is  not  destined 
to  remain  long  unhappy;  for  at  a  tournament,  of 
which  she  is  to  be  the  prize,  Roland  appears,  and 
instead  of  finding  the  death  which  he  seeks  in  his 
despair,  he  wins  the  victory  and  is  restored  to  his 
lost  enchantress. 

The  music  to  "  Esclarmonde,"  while  still  decidedly 
individual,  shows  some  noticeable  traces  of  Wag- 
nerian  influence.  The  subject  and  arrangement  of 
the  libretto  give  only  a  faint  reminder  of  the  music- 
dramas,  but  the  use  of  guiding  motives,  one  bearing 


THE  ELDER   FRENCHMEN 


close  resemblance  to  a  phrase  from  "  Die  Meister- 
singer,"  indicates  that  the  composer  had  been  cast- 
ing furtive  glances  in  the  direction  of  Bayreuth. 

"  Werther,"  based  on  Goethe's  novel,  is  another 
of  Massenet's  successes.  The  plot  is  not  rich  in 
dramatic  interest,  but  its  romantic  episodes  afford 
excellent  material  for  the  composer,  who  can  always 
impart  a  mystic  tenderness  to  scenes  of  love  and 
sentiment.  The  music  is  expressive  and  full  of  feel- 
ing, and  is  written  with  due  regard  to  dramatic 
unity. 

"  Le  Mage,"  another  Oriental  subject,  was  a  com- 
parative failure.  "  Thais,"  depicting  the  conver- 
sion of  a  courtesan  of  ancient  Egypt  and  the  sub- 
sequent infatuation  of  the  hermit  who  performed 
this  holy  task,  met  with  a  better  reception,  and  won 
a  permanent  place  at  the  Opera-Comique.  "  La 
Navarraise,"  with  its  love  amid  cannons,  the  kill- 
ing of  the  hostile  leader  by  the  heroine,  and  the 
repudiation  of  her  by  her  lover,  who  thinks  she 
has  sold  herself,  is  an  echo  of  Mascagni's  "  Caval- 
leria."  "  Le  Portrait  de  Manon  "  is  a  delightful 
one-act  love-idyl,  in  which  opposition  to  a  marriage 
is  overcome  by  the  pleading  of  the  bride-to-be. 
"  Cendrillon,"  with  its  fairy  subject,  may  possibly 
have  been  inspired  by  "  Hansel  and  Gretel." 

"  Griselidis  "  possesses  a  libretto  that  is  less  sen- 


128  MODERN  COMPOSERS  OF  EUROPE 

suous,  and  therefore  more  attractive  to  many 
audiences  than  the  stories  of  the  earlier  operas. 
The  heroine  is  a  faithful  country  maiden,  who  is 
married  to  the  Count  de  Saluces,  and  has  her  fidel- 
ity tested  in  every  imaginable  way.  In  the  Massenet 
version,  the  count,  on  leaving  for  the  crusades, 
makes  a  wager  with  the  devil  that  his  wife  will 
prove  faithful.  That  wily  person  tries  to  tempt 
her  by  introducing  the  shepherd  Alain,  a  former 
admirer;  and  when  the  thought  of  her  child  saves 
her,  he  steals  the  child.  Griselidis  prays  to  the 
statue  of  St.  Agnes,  but  the  statue  disappears.  The 
count  returns,  to  be  met  by  the  devil  with  false 
news  of  his  success.  On  finding  out  this  trick,  the 
count  grasps  his  arms;  but  they,  too,  disappear. 
At  last  he  takes  refuge  in  prayer ;  the  cross  changes 
to  a  flaming  sword,  and  when  he  seizes  and  waves 
it,  all  the  spells  are  overcome.  The  child  and  the 
statue  reappear,  bells  ring,  and  a  scene  of  general 
rejoicing  finishes  the  play.  The  music  marks  this 
as  one  of  the  master's  great  works,  and  its  in- 
spired melodic  beauty  makes  a  strong  appeal  to  the 
hearer. 

Another  delightful  work  is  "  Le  Jongleur  de 
Notre-Dame."  In  this  a  poor  starving  jongleur,  on 
the  public  square  at  Cluny,  sings  ribald  songs  for 
the  populace;  but  he  is  reverent  at  heart,  and  apolo- 


THE   ELDER  FRENCHMEN  1 29 

gizes  to  a  statue  of  the  Virgin  for  what  he  must 
do.  The  tumult  becomes  so  great  that  the  prior 
opens  the  door  of  the  monastery  and  disperses  the 
crowd.  The  hapless  jongleur  is  threatened  with 
excommunication  unless  he  will  become  a  monk, 
and  the  sight  of  a  donkey  laden  with  food  for  the 
sacred  brothers  decides  him  to  yield.  Inside,  he  is 
the  butt  of  all  except  Frere  Boniface,  the  cook, 
who  tries  to  help  him.  All  do  some  task  in  honour 
of  the  Virgin  —  painting,  illuminating  missals,  or 
composing  canticles;  he  alone  can  do  nothing. 
Suddenly  an  idea  strikes  him;  he  will  amuse  her. 
So  he  takes  his  jongleur's  outfit,  and  performs  his 
solitary  entertainment  before  her  statue.  At  last 
the  other  monks  arrive,  and  are  horrified  at  his  act ; 
but  before  they  can  punish  him,  the  statue  comes  to 
life,  thanks  him  with  her  blessing,  and  calls  him 
to  her  side  in  heaven. 

Massenet  at  sixty-two  possesses  much  of  the 
quick,  nervous  activity  that  has  always  character- 
ized him.  He  is  essentially  French  —  in  his  music, 
in  his  personal  temperament,  in  his  operatic  sub- 
jects. His  long  career  of  composition  has  been 
supplemented  by  many  years  of  activity  as  pro- 
fessor of  composition  in  the  Conservatoire  —  the 
same  institution  from  which  Bazin  tried  to  exclude 
him  in  his  youth,  as  being  destitute  of  musical 


I3O  MODERN  COMPOSERS  OF  EUROPE 

talent.    The  names  of  his  pupils  form  a  large  part 
of  the  list  of  France's  great  living  composers  - 
such    as    Bruneau,    Leroux,    Charpentier,    Pierne, 
Vidal,  and  Marty,  to  say  nothing  of  lesser  men. 

An  opera  composer  who  seems  almost  to  have 
outlived  his  generation  is  Louis  fitienne  Ernest 
Reyer,  or  Rey.  He  was  born  at  Marseilles  in  1823. 
He  studied  music  during  his  childhood,  and  com- 
posed songs  and  masses  while  in  the  government 
financial  bureau  at  Algiers.  Owing  to  the  revolu- 
tion of  1848,  he  lost  his  position,  and  from  that 
time  on  became  wholly  devoted  to  music.  His  aunt 
was  the  famous  Madame  Farrenc,  whose  composi- 
tions secured  her  an  honourable  place  among  musi- 
cal women;  and  under  her  tuition  he  progressed 
rapidly. 

He  has  gained  some  fame  as  critic  of  the  Jour- 
nal des  Debats,  and  has  published  a  volume  of  essays ; 
but  the  world  knows  and  honours  him  chiefly  as  a 
composer.  His  first  great  work  was  "  Le  Selam," 
a  symphonic  ode  not  unlike  David's  "  Le  Desert." 
The  one-act  "  Maitre  Wolfram"  and  the  ballet- 
pantomime  "  Sacountala  "  made  no  great  effect,  and 
it  was  only  with  "La  Statue,"  in  1861,  that  he 
won  some  degree  of  renown  and  a  membership  in 
the  Academic.  "  Erostrate,"  which  followed,  again 
met  with  neglect,  and  it  was  not  until  he  produced 


THE   ELDER   FRENCHMEN  l$\ 

his  "  Sigurd,"  in  1884,  and  the  much  later  "  Sa- 
lammbo,"  that  his  genius  was  fully  appreciated. 

"  Sigurd  "  is  none  other  than  Siegfried,  and  the 
subject  is  identical  with  that  of  Wagner's  "  Gotter- 
dammerung."  Yet  in  spite  of  this  formidable  rival, 
Reyer's  work  has  held  its  own  well.  The  opera 
was  sketched  before  Wagner's  drama  had  appeared, 
and  is  in  no  sense  a  plagiarism.  As  far  as  the 
Wagnerian  style  is  concerned,  Reyer  is  in  some 
degree  a  follower  of  the  German  master.  He  em- 
ploys guiding  motives  to  some  extent,  and  makes 
his  work  a  unified  whole;  but  his  model  is  evidently 
"  Lohengrin "  or  "  Tannhauser,"  rather  than  the 
later  music-dramas.  There  are  suggestions  of  older 
masters,  and  it  would  be  equally  correct  to  call 
Reyer  a  follower  of  Meyerbeer  and  Berlioz,  —  if, 
indeed,  it  is  necessary  to  account  for  the  existence 
of  every  genius  by  referring  him  to  his  artistic 
antecedents.  "  Salammbo,"  a  stage  version  of 
Flaubert's  well-known  story  of  old  Carthaginian 
times,  contains  much  beautiful  music,  and  shows 
true  dramatic  feeling. 

Such  men  as  Lalo,  Godard,  or  Delibes  have  died 
so  recently  that  they  seem  to  belong  to  the  present. 
Their  work  lives,  and  some  of  it  still  possesses  the 
charm  of  novelty  for  nations  other  than  France. 
But  in  spite  of  much  that  is  great  and  original 


132  MODERN  COMPOSERS  OF  EUROPE 

in  their  compositions,  they  do  not  mark  any  new 
musical  tendency,  any  radical  departure  from  the 
paths  followed  by  Saint-Saens,  for  example. 

The  case  is  different  with  Cesar  Auguste  Franck, 
whose  name  is  now  held  in  honour  by  the  younger 
French  school,  of  which  he  may  be  justly  called 
the  founder.  Born  at  Liege  on  December  10,  1822, 
he  studied  at  the  conservatory  there,  afterward  be- 
coming a  citizen  of  France  and  continuing  his 
studies  at  the  Paris  Conservatoire.  Modest  and 
retiring  by  nature,  "  le  bon  pere  Franck,"  as  he  was 
called,  divided  his  time  between  teaching,  composing, 
and  playing  the  organ  of  the  Ste.  Clotilde  church. 
His  simple  faith  and  earnest  work  made  him  seem 
like  some  of  the  old  mediaeval  artists,  who  de- 
voted their  life  and  their  music  to  the  glory  of 
the  Lord. 

Franck  is  well  described  by  the  words  of  his 
pupil,  Guy  de  Ropartz :  "  He  stands  out  from  his 
contemporaries  as  one  of  another  age;  they  are 
scoffers,  he  was  a  believer;  they  vaunt  themselves, 
he  worked  in  silence;  they  seek  glory,  he  let  it 
seek  him.  .  .  .  They  shrink  from  nothing  to  at- 
tain their  object  —  concession,  compromise,  mean- 
ness even;  he  performed  his  mission  faithfully  and 
without  yielding  or  counting  the  cost,  leaving  us 
the  noblest  example  of  artistic  uprightness." 


CESAR  AUGUSTE  FRANCK. 


THE  ELDER  FRENCHMEN  133 

After  winning  prizes  at  the  Conservatoire  for 
counterpoint,  fugue,  and  organ,  Franck  began  his 
career  as  piano  teacher.  Soon  afterward  he  became 
organ  professor  at  the  Conservatoire,  and  this  post, 
with  his  private  teaching  in  composition,  enabled 
him  to  become  the  leader  and  the  ideal  of  such 
men  as  D'Indy,  De  Castillon,  Duparc,  Chausson, 
and  many  others. 

His  first  great  work  was  the  biblical  eclogue, 
"  Ruth,"  which  won  the  young  composer  some  fame 
by  its  success.  An  early  opera,  "  Le  Valet  de 
Ferme,"  failed,  after  which  he  returned  to  the 
field  of  sacred  and  organ  music.  In  1870  he  began 
the  "  Beatitudes,"  a  grandly  planned  musical  para- 
phrase of  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount.  The  poor, 
the  weak,  and  the  sufferers  cry  out  in  their  anguish ; 
then  the  voice  of  Christ  utters  words  of  peace  and 
comfort.  Satan  tries  to  stir  up  hatred  and  rebellion, 
but  again  the  sacred  voice  replies,  and  the  evil 
spirit  is  silenced.  This  work,  in  eight  parts,  con- 
tains some  of  the  noblest  of  modern  French  music. 
Its  divine  tenderness,  its  dramatic  force,  its  inspir- 
ing triumph  mark  it  as  a  masterpiece.  Yet  its 
first  effect  is  strange,  for  with  immense  polyphonic 
learning  Franck  combines  a  most  modern  tendency 
of  bold  modulations.  It  is  the  extremely  chromatic 
character  of  his  works  that  has  undoubtedly  pre- 


'134  MODERN  COMPOSERS   OF  EUROPE 

vented  them  from  becoming  popular,  and  the  dis- 
cussion of  this  point  is  what  has  caused  such  con- 
troversy about  the  modern  French  school  as  a  whole. 

Two  other  oratorios  by  Franck,  both  worthy 
works,  are  "  Rebecca  "  and  "  The  Redemption." 
In  the  orchestra  field,  a  set  of  symphonic  variations 
was  followed  by  the  great  D-minor  symphony,  a 
truly  artistic  composition.  Of  his  many  symphonic 
poems,  "  Psyche  "  introduces  solos,  duets,  and  even 
a  chorus,  to  paint  the  love  of  Eros  and  the  suffer- 
ing and  apotheosis  of  his  bride.  "  Les  Eolides  "  was 
inspired  by  a  beautiful  ballad  of  Leconte  de  Lisle, 
giving  homage  to  the  breezes,  the  children  of 
^olus.  "  Les  Djinns  "  depicts  the  spirits  of  the 
Orient,  wandering  about  on  errands  of  mischief, 
while  "  Le  Chasseur  Maudit "  portrays  the  tragic 
fate  of  the  fabled  Count  of  the  Rhine,  who  started 
his  hunt  on  Sunday,  and  was  compelled  in  punish- 
ment to  hunt  eternally,  driven  by  the  flames  of 
hell  and  pursued  by  a  pack  of  demons. 

Franck's  one  great  opera,  "  Hulda,"  deals  with 
a  viking  subject.  It  may  not  be  an  imitation,  but 
the  legendary  libretto  and  the  modulatory  music 
cannot  help  reminding  the  hearer  of  "  Tristan." 
Hulda  is  a  pleasing  viking  maiden  of  the  eleventh 
century,  who  is  loved  by  her  captor  Gudleik,  but 
prefers  Eyolf.  She  foments  a  duel,  in  which  Gud- 


THE   ELDER   FRENCHMEN  135 

leik  falls,  after  which  she  is  satisfied  for  a  time 
with  the  status  quo.  But  Eyolf  returns  to  his  former 
love,  Swanhilda,  whereupon  Hulda  arouses  Gud- 
leik's  brothers  to  avenge  him.  She  leads  Eyolf  into 
an  ambuscade,  where  he  is  killed.  While  the  victors 
are  debating  whether  such  a  gentle  maid  as  Hulda 
were  not  too  good  to  be  allowed  to  remain  in  this 
world,  Eyolf's  men  come  up,  and  she  casts  herself 
into  the  sea  to  escape  their  vengeance. 

Still  another  opera,  "  Ghisella,"  was  left  unfin- 
ished, and  too  fragmentary  for  performance.  Franck 
has  also  written  much  chamber  music,  most  of  it 
strikingly  effective.  The  influence  of  Franck,  so 
far  as  his  own  life  was  concerned,  has  raised  the 
standard  of  musical  thought,  and  led  his  contem- 
poraries into  paths  of  true  art.  But  his  modulatory 
style,  which  if  at  times  vague  is  never  uninteresting 
in  his  own  works,  has  led  some  of  the  younger 
enthusiasts  into  a  tangle  of  meaningless  harmonic 
jumbles.  It  would  seem  as  if  the  world  were  getting 
tired  of  the  commonplace,  and  seeking  for  new 
effects  in  modulation;  but  although  this  style  is 
much  in  evidence  at  present,  some  day  there  will 
come  a  man  who  will  utter  his  musical  thoughts  in 
straightforward  fashion,  and  the  vain  efforts  of 
those  who  went  before  will  be  forgotten.  The  fresh 
enthusiasm  of  "  Cyrano  de  Bergerac "  carried  it 


136  MODERN  COMPOSERS   OF  EUROPE 

around  the  literary  world;  and  some  musical  Ros- 
tand will  undoubtedly  arise  for  France,  beside 
whose  simple  force  the  unclear  utterances  of  the 
present  school  will, lose  their  factitious  importance. 


CHAPTER   VI. 

THE   FRENCHMEN    OF   TO-DAY 

VINCENT  D'!NDY,  the  leader  of  the  new  French 
school,  was  born  at  Paris,  on  March  27,  1852.  His 
inborn  taste  outweighed  the  scruples  of  his  parents, 
and  he  devoted  himself  to  a  musical  career,  receiv- 
ing instruction  from  his  grandmother.  After  serv- 
ing as  volunteer  in  the  war  of  1870,  he  returned 
with  redoubled  zeal  to  his  studies,  and  became  a 
pupil  of  Franck,  "  under  whose  worthy  and  benef- 
icent direction,"  he  writes  to  the  author,  he  com- 
pleted a  course  in  technical  studies,  organ,  and 
composition.  A  trip  to  Germany,  in  1872,  enabled 
the  young  composer  to  meet  and  admire  Liszt  at 
Weimar. 

D'Indv  has  been  an  active  figure  in  the  musical 
life  of  his  nation.  With  Franck,  Saint-Saens,  De 
Castillon,  and  Duparc,  he  founded  the  French 
National  Society  of  Music.  He  was  a  fervent  par- 
tisan of  Wagner,  at  a  time  when  nearly  all  of 
France  was  hostile  to  that  master.  At  the  first 


138  MODERN  COMPOSERS  OF  EUROPE 

Bayreuth  festival,  he  assisted  in  preparing  the  per- 
formance of  the  "  Ring,"  and  later  of  "  Parsifal." 
His  early  work  as  kettle-drummer  and  chorus-master 
in  Colonne's  Chatelet  concerts  prepared  him  for  a 
later  career  as  conductor.  In  this  capacity  he  has 
been  an  untiring  champion  of  new  and  little-known 
works,  some  by  ancient  writers,  but  the  larger  part 
belonging  to  the  most  modern  French  repertoire, 
In  Barcelona  he  has  given  two  sets  of  five  concerts 
illustrating  the  development  of  the  symphony. 

His  first  important  work  to  reach  the  public  was 
the  "  Piccolomini  "  overture,  which  forms  a  part 
of  his  orchestral  trilogy  based  on  Schiller's 
"  Wallenstein."  At  a  later  period  he  wrote  "  La 
Chevauchee  du  Cid,"  for  baritone,  chorus,  and  or- 
chestra. In  1884  came  the  "  Chant  de  la  Cloche," 
a  dramatic  legend  consisting  of  a  prologue  and 
seven  parts,  for  soloists,  chorus,  and  orchestra. 
This  composition,  for  which  he  wrote  the  poem  as 
well  as  the  music,  took  first  prize  in  a  competition 
arranged  by  the  city  authorities  of  Paris,  and 
brought  the  composer  a  reward  in  both  money  and 
glory. 

The  overture  to  "  Antony  and  Cleopatra  "  is  an 
early  work,  as  is  also  the  symphony,  in  three  move- 
ments, entitled  "  Jean  Hunyadi."  In  1878  came 
the  first  of  the  symphonic  poems,  "  La  Foret  En- 


VINCENT  D'INDY. 


THE  FRENCHMEN  OF   TO-DAY  139 

chantee,"  after  the  ballad  of  Uhland,  entitled 
"  Harald."  It  is  an  orchestral  picture  of  Harald, 
the  hero  of  old,  who  rides  through  the  magic  wood 
with  his  knights.  The  rustling  murmurs  of  the 
forest  mask  the  troop  of  elves,  who  charm  away  his 
warriors,  but  he  moves  bravely  onward,  until  he 
finds  a  pure  spring  and  drinks  from  it.  Its  en- 
chanted waters  throw  him  into  a  deep  slumber, 
where  he  remains  during  the  centuries,  surrounded 
by  the  dancing  elves. 

"  Saugefleurie  "  is  an  orchestral  legend  based  on 
a  story  of  De  Bonnieres.  D'Indy's  latest  symphonic 
poem  is  "  Istar,"  based  on  parts  of  the  old  Assyrian 
epic,  "  Idzubar."  Istar's  husband,  governor  of 
Erech,  is  dead,  and  the  city  a  prey  to  the  invading 
Elamites.  Idzubar,  the  hero,  delivers  it,  but  re- 
fuses Istar's  hand,  whereupon  she  tries  to  call  down 
vengeance  upon  him.  He  is  smitten  with  disease, 
and  healed  only  by  celestial  aid.  In  D'Indy's  ver- 
sion, however,  Istar  seeks  her  lover  in  the  dread 
abode  of  death,  the  pays  immuable,  and,  after  sacri- 
ficing her  garments  to  the  warders,  she  rescues  him 
with  the  water  of  life. 

D'Indy  has  produced  two  symphonies,  not  in- 
cluding the  one  already  mentioned.  The  first,  com- 
posed in  1886,  is  based  on  a  mountain  air,  which 
is  sung  to-day  by  the  peasants  of  the  Cevennes. 


140  MODERN  COMPOSERS   OF  EUROPE 

The  melody,  sweet  and  pure,  in  fact  almost  sad  in 
effect,  forms  the  groundwork  of  all  three  move- 
ments, recurring  much  as  the  themes  do  in  the 
tone-pictures  of  Berlioz.  The  second  symphony, 
composed  in  1903,  has  not  yet  had  time  to  become 
familiar.  Other  instrumental  works  of  DTndy  are 
the  orchestral  suite  "  Karadec,"  based  on  incidental 
music  for  a  drama,  and  the  music  to  Catulle 
Mendes's  tragedy  of  "  Medee." 

Though  not  so  wildly  devoted  to  opera  as  many 
French  composers,  DTndy  has  won  some  successes 
in  that  form.  A  youthful  attempt  to  set  "  Les  Bur- 
graves,"  after  Victor  Hugo,  was  never  finished,  but 
the  one-act  comic  opera,  "  Attendez  -  Moi  Sous 
I'Orme,"  has  had  numerous  performances.  As  an 
admirer  of  Wagner  it  was  inevitable  that  D'Indy 
should  produce  something  in  the  style  of  the  music- 
dramas,  and  his  "  Fervaal,"  brought  out  at  Brussels 
in  1897,  showed  plainly  the  influence  of  "  Parsifal  " 
and  "  Tristan."  The  very  title,  action  musicale,  in- 
dicates a  departure  from  the  older  French  forms. 
The  music,  as  expected  from  Franck's  best  pupil, 
is  extremely  modulatory  in  character,  and  shows 
the  grasp  of  a  master  of  harmony  and  dramatic 
effect.  The  score  gives  a  vivid  picture  of  the  in- 
cessant struggle,  and  rises  to  great  heights  of  power. 

Fervaal  lives  in  old  France,   in  the  time  when 


THE  FRENCHMEN  OF  TO-DAY  14! 

Celtic  druidism  still  existed.  He  is  wounded  and 
captured  by  Saracens,  but  nursed  and  saved  by 
Guilhen,  the  emir's  daughter.  The  first  act  (the 
preceding  being  a  prologue)  shows  Fervaal  in  the 
leader's  garden,  dreaming  of  Guilhen.  The  priest 
Arfagard  tries  to  inspire  him  with  the  design  of 
restoring  the  supremacy  of  the  druids,  and  Guilhen's 
charms,  which  hold  him  for  a  time,  cannot  prevent 
his  flight.  In  the  next  act  Fervaal  consults  the 
oracle  on  the  heights  by  the  old  sacred  city  of 
Cravann,  and  then  plunges  into  battle  with  the  pur- 
suing Saracens,  in  hope  of  finding  death.  In  the 
last  act,  Guilhen  finds  Fervaal,  but  dies  exhausted 
in  his  arms.  Made  wise  by  grief,  Fervaal  foresees 
the  fall  of  the  old  gods  and  the  triumph  of  love, 
Taking  Guilhen's  body,  he  disappears  up  the  moun- 
tain. 

"  L'fitranger,"  produced  in  1902,  has  a  more 
symbolic  plot.  It  deals  with  a  silent,  patient 
stranger  who  comes  to  dwell  in  a  village  on  the 
coast,  and  spends  his  time  in  unselfish  deeds.  The 
children  hoot  him,  and  the  only  one  who  speaks  to 
him  is  Vita,  a  maiden  who  is  loved  by  Andre,  the 
customs  officer.  The  stranger,  old  in  suffering,  will 
not  at  first  respond,  but  when  he  sees  Vita's  sorrow 
he  confesses  his  interest  in  her.  Andre  comes,  with 
a  commonplace  song.  He  has  captured  a  poor 


142  MODERN  COMPOSERS  OF  EUROPE 

smuggler,  and,  while  the  pair  of  lovers  pity  the 
unfortunate  man  and  his  children,  he  thinks  only 
of  the  reward,  and  offers  to  buy  Vita  a  necklace 
for  their  banns.  But  on  the  morrow  the  banns  are 
not  called,  for  Vita  refuses  to  allow  it.  The  people 
are  surprised,  and  her  mother  scolds,  but  she  is 
firm.  Alone  by  the  sea,  the  stranger  comes  to 
say  adieu,  as  he  must  travel  through  all  lands  to 
relieve  suffering  and  seek  human  brotherhood.  He 
gives  her  a  sacred  emerald,  but  she  throws  it  into 
the  sea,  and  an  impending  storm  breaks.  A  ship 
is  in  danger,  but  no  one  acts,  until  the  stranger 
mans  a  boat.  Even  then  none  will  go  with  him, 
when  suddenly  Vita  comes.  They  reach  the  ship, 
but  a  great  wave  engulfs  everything,  and  the  De 
Profundis  ends  the  work. 

It  has  been  suggested  that  the  title  of  this  work 
should  be  altered  from  "  The  Stranger  "  to  "  The 
Strangest."  But  it  has  many  remarkable  beauties, 
and  its  evident  striving  after  an  ideal  makes  it  an 
opera  well  worth  studying.  This  is  D'Indy's  most 
recent  triumph,  but  his  many  lesser  works  — 
chamber  music,  songs,  dainty  piano  pieces,  and  one 
or  two  cantatas  and  sacred  selections  —  are  now 
becoming  well  known.  The  composer  is  at  present 
(1904)  finishing  a  violin  sonata. 

D'Indy  the  man  is  quiet  and  unassuming,  always 


THE  FRENCHMEN  OF   TO-DAY  143 

modest  and  obliging,  wherein  he  resembles  his 
master,  Franck.  He  is  fond  of  the  country;  the 
air,  the  birds,  the  sweet  smells  of  earth  and  fields 
appeal  to  him  strongly.  So,  too,  do  the  beauty 
of  the  forests  and  the  sublimity  of  the  mountains. 
•His  first  symphony  and  his  "  Foret  Enchantee " 
reflect  this  love  of  nature  in  a  tangible  form. 

D'Indy  has  received  many  honours,  and  is  now 
Chevalier  of  the  Legion  of  Honour,  Chevalier  of 
the  Order  of  Leopold  of  Belgium,  and  Commander 
of  the  Order  of  Charles  III.,  of  Spain.  Since  the 
Paris  Exposition  of  1889  he  has  been  a  member 
of  the  official  music  commission.  He  also  belongs 
to  the  Academic  Royale  of  Belgium,  and,  if  that 
is  not  enough,  he  is  a  member  of  the  "  Maatschappij 
tot  Bevarderung  der  Toonkunst,"  in  Holland.  In 
1895  he  founded,  with  Charles  Bardes  and  Alex- 
andre  Guilmant,  the  Schola  Cantorum,  a  music- 
school  now  numbering  three  hundred  pupils,  of 
whom  he  has  more  than  sixty  in  his  composition 
classes. 

Alexis  Emmanuel  Chabrier  created  great  works 
during  his  life,  and  would  undoubtedly  have  done 
still  greater  things  had  he  been  spared  longer.  He 
was  born  at  Ambert,  on  January  18,  1841,  studied 
law  in  Paris,  and  entered  the  office  of  the  Ministere 
de  1'Interieure.  He  had  taken  a  few  lessons  in 


144  MODERN  COMPOSERS   OF  EUROPE 

music,  but  was  almost  wholly  self-taught.  His  early 
successes  in  light  opera,  with  "  L'fitoile "  and 
"  L'fiducation  Manquee,"  decided  him  to  follow  a 
musical  career,  and,  in  order  to  train  himself  in 
orchestration,  he  copied  the  entire  score  of  "  Tris- 
tan." 

In  1881  came  the  suite  for  piano  entitled  "  Dix 
Pieces  Pittoresques,"  while  two  years  later  he  pub- 
lished the  brilliant  orchestral  rhapsody  "  Espana," 
based  on  well-known  Spanish  airs.  Other  important 
works  by  Chabrier  are  "  La  Sulamite,"  for  mezzo- 
soprano,  female  chorus,  and  orchestra;  music  to 
Mendes's  tragic  "  Femme  de  Tabarin";  "Suite 
Pastorale";  the  lively  "  Marche  Joyeuse";  "A 
la  Musique,"  for  soprano,  female  chorus,  and  or- 
chestra; a  number  of  piano  pieces,  and  several 
fantastically  humourous  songs. 

It  was  in  the  operatic  field  that  Chabrier  won  his 
greatest  success,  in  spite  of  the  ill-luck  which  seemed 
to  pursue  him.  His  "  Gwendoline "  appeared  at 
Brussels  in  1886,  but  after  a  few  performances  the 
theatre  suspended  payment.  A  second  great  work, 
"  Le  Roi  Malgre  Lui,"  was  given  at  the  Paris 
Opera  Comique,  whereupon  the  theatre  took  fire 
and  burned  down.  "  Gwendoline "  received  a 
German  hearing,  under  Mottl,  and  proved  itself 
a  worthy  work.  The  libretto,  by  Mendes,  shows 


THE  FRENCHMEN  OF   TO-DAY  145 

Gwendoline  as  the  daughter  of  Armel,  an  ancient 
British  king.  All  is  peace  and  plenty  in  the  land, 
when  she  announces  a  dream  that  a  Dane  had  car- 
ried her  over  the  sea.  The  people  laugh,  but  men 
rush  in  with  dismay,  for  the  Danes,  under  Harald, 
have  really  come.  Gwendoline  saves  her  father, 
and  captivates  Harald,  who  asks  her  hand.  Armel 
consents,  but  arranges  to  massacre  the  Danes  at 
the  wedding-feast.  Gwendoline,  who  really  loves 
Harald,  warns  him,  but  in  vain ;  his  men  are  killed, 
he  is  beaten  down,  Gwendoline  snatches  his  knife 
and  stabs  herself,  while  the  pair  die  singing  exultant 
strains  of  the  Valkyrie  and  Walhalla. 

The  music  of  "  Gwendoline "  is  virile,  forceful, 
and  truly  dramatic  in  quality.  Despite  lack  of  train- 
ing, Chabrier  attained  his  effects  with  sure  and  skil- 
ful hand.  Of  all  the  Frenchmen,  he  was  the  one  best 
fitted  to  attempt  the  bold  style  required  by  the  sub- 
ject. Nor  was  he  unsuccessful  in  a  more  graceful 
vein,  for  "  Le  Roi  Malgre  Lui  "  is  an  excellent 
example  of  the  modernized  opera  comique.  In  per- 
son, Chabrier  was  large,  stout,  and  of  the  utmost 
jollity.  He  would  play  piano  with  infinite  enthu- 
siasm and  drollery,  convulsing  his  audience  and 
breaking  the  strings.  Just  when  this  good-natured 
man  had  success  within  his  grasp,  he  was  struck 


146  MODERN  COMPOSERS  OF  EUROPE 

down  by  brain  paralysis,  and  wasted  away  to  a 
premature  death  on  September  15,  1894. 

Alfred  Bruneau,  even  though  not  acknowledged 
by  all  as  a  safe  guide,  stands  as  the  operatic  leader 
of  the  realistic  school  of  modern  France.  Born  at 
Paris,  March  3,  1857,  he  studied  at  the  Conserva- 
toire and  won  the  Prix  de  Rome  with  his  cantata 
"  Sainte  Genevieve."  His  earliest  opera,  "  Kerim," 
received  little  notice,  but  with  Zola's  "  Le  Reve," 
in  1891,  he  began  to  receive  more  attention.  Its 
heroine  is  the  dreamy  Angelique,  who  falls  in  love 
with  the  bishop's  son,  an  artist  who  is  designing 
the  cathedral  windows.  The  bishop  objects,  but 
yields  when  Angelique  pines  away.  The  wedding 
takes  place,  but  she  has  been  so  weakened  that  on 
emerging  from  the  cathedral  she  dies  from  excess 
of  happiness. 

"  L'Attaque  du  Moulin,"  another  Zola  libretto, 
deals  with  the  love  of  Dominique,  a  soldier  in  the 
Franco-Prussian  War,  for  Franchise,  the  miller's 
daughter  in  a  small  village.  The  plot  involves  the 
capture  and  escape  of  Dominique,  and  the  voluntary 
sacrifice  of  the  miller  in  his  place.  In  this  opera 
the  lofty  continuity  of  "  Le  Reve  "  gives  place  to 
a  more  rhythmical  and  formally  melodic  style,  and 
the  work  achieved  a  tremendous  success  with  the 
public  at  large. 


ALFRED   BRUNEAU. 


THE   FRENCHMEN  OF   TO-DAY  147 

In  "  Messidor,"  Bruneau  returned  to  the  sus- 
tained style  of  which  he  is  such  an  ardent  champion. 
The  story,  based  again  on  a  text  from  Zola,  is  at- 
tractive enough.  On  the  banks  of  the  gold-bearing 
Ariege,  whose  waters,  according  to  tradition,  bring 
the  yellow  grains  from  a  mysterious  golden  cathe- 
dral where  the  Christ-child  scatters  them  in  play, 
the  people  have  left  off  tilling  the  fields  in  a  fever 
for  sudden  wealth.  Helene,  the  daughter  of  the 
rich  Gasparcl,  is  loved  by  Guillaume,  whose  mother, 
Veronique,  thinks  Gaspard  responsible  for  the  acci- 
dent that  caused  her  husband's  death.  Guillaume, 
prevented  by  poverty  and  other  circumstances  from 
winning  his  love,  heads  a  band  of  idlers  in  an 
attempt  to  coerce  Gaspard  and  destroy  his  gold- 
washing  machines.  Meanwhile  Veronique  has  acci- 
dentally beheld  the  sacred  cathedral,  which  vanishes 
after  being  seen  by  mortal  eyes.  A  tempest  destroys 
Gaspard's  plant,  Veronique's  suspicions  are  proved 
wrong,  Guillaume  and  Helene  are  free  to  love  each 
other,  the  people  return  to  honest  labour,  and  the 
fields  are  once  more  covered  with  ripening  grain 
and  luxuriant  verdure. 

"  L'Ouragan,"  produced  in  1901,  deals  with  the 
fierce  blasts  of  human  passion  as  well  as  with  the 
hurricane  of  nature.  It  is  located  in  the  imaginary 
island  of  Goe'l,  where  the  jealous  and  vindictive 


148  MODERN  COMPOSERS  OF  EUROPE 

Marianne  wishes  to  rule  by  ruining  the  rival  fish- 
eries of  the  two  brothers  Richard  and  Landry. 
Richard,  who  has  loved  her  sister  Jeannine,  has 
been  driven  away  by  her  wiles,  and  Jeannine  has 
become  the  bride  of  Landry.  He  proves  a  cruel 
husband,  a  drunkard  and  a  wife-beater,  and  ready 
to  fall  a  prey  to  Marianne's  advances.  In  the  first 
act,  Richard,  now  a  sea-captain,  returns  and  finds 
the  troubled  Jeannine  in  need  of  consolation. 
Marianne  surprises  them,  and  allows  them  to  ar- 
range an  elopement  with  her  house  as  meeting- 
place;  but  she  has  told  Landry,  whom  she  brings 
to  the  scene.  Landry  is  wild  with  rage,  but  Richard 
declines  to  fight;  and,  when  Landry  tries  to  stab 
him,  Marianne,  who  really  loves  Richard,  snatches 
the  knife  and  kills  the  would-be  murderer.  Jeannine 
is  overcome  by  this  terrible  act,  and  Richard  departs 
alone  in  the  hurricane  that  is  raging. 

Bruneau  is  now  at  work  preparing  for  the  per- 
formance of  "  L'Enfant  Roi,"  to  take  place  in  1905, 
and  he  is  also  completing  incidental  music  to  "  La 
Faute  de  1'Abbe  Mouret,"  both  on  texts  of  Zola. 
Among  his  other  works  are  a  great  Requiem,  a 
Heroic  Overture,  the  symphonic  poem  "  Pen- 
thesilee,"  for  voice  and  orchestra,  and  many  beau- 
tiful songs.  His  three  books,  "  Musiques  d'Hier  et 
de  Demain,"  "  La  Musique  Franchise,"  and  "  Mu- 


THE  FRENCHMEN  OF   TO-DAY  149 

siques  de  Russie  et  Musiciens  de  France,"  all  con- 
tain much  valuable  criticism.  He  has  done  similar 
work  for  the  daily  papers,  such  as  Gil  Bias,  Le 
Figaro,  and  at  present  Le  Matin. 

His  music  has  aroused  decided  controversy. 
Such  men  as  Pougin,  who  cling  wholly  to  the  older 
melodic  ideas  of  opera,  see  nothing  but  noise  and 
confusion  in  his  scores ;  while  many  of  the  greatest 
composers,  including  such  a  leader  as  Charpentier, 
are  enthusiastic  in  their  praise.  Bruneau  is  cer- 
tainly sincere,  and  has  just  as  certainly  developed 
a  vein  of  music-drama  that  is  realistic,  modern,  and 
based  on  French  lines.  His  music,  especially  in  the 
romantic  "  Messidor  "  and  the  powerful  "  Ouragan," 
is  that  of  a  master,  and  abounds  in  beautiful  pas- 
sages. If  he  indulges  in  the  continuous  melodic 
recitative  too  much  to  please  some  critics,  he  does 
so  because  he  deems  it  proper  for  dramatic  ex- 
pression. He  surely  deserves  praise  from  all  fac- 
tions for  his  earnestness  and  fidelity  to  his  own 
ideals.  All  his  operatic  work  has  been  done  in 
connection  with  Zola,  who  has  stood  for  realism 
in  literature. 

If  Gustave  Charpentier  has  not  many  operas  to 
his  credit,  he  has  made  up  for  this  lack  by  the 
remarkable  excellence  of  his  one  chief  work, 
"  Louise."  Born  at  Dieuze,  in  Lorraine,  on 


I  50  MODERN  COMPOSERS   OF  EUROPE 

June  25,  1860,  he,  too,  became  a  Conservatoire 
pupil,  and  took  the  Prix  de  Rome.  His  life  in  the 
Eternal  City  resulted  in  the  delightful  orchestral 
suite,  "  Impressions  d'ltalie,"  consisting  of  five  tone- 
pictures  entitled  "  Serenade,"  "  At  the  Fountain," 
"  On  Muleback,"  "  On  the  Summits,"  and  "Naples." 

On  his  return  to  Paris  he  lived  for  some  time  in 
Montmartre,  where  for  awhile  he  did  daily  labour, 
and  where  he  became  thoroughly  acquainted  with 
the  working  life  of  the  capital.  The  scenes  of  this 
life  appear  constantly  in  his  music,  and  furnish  him 
with  strong  subjects.  They  have  even  involved  him 
in  controversies,  for  his  suggestion  that  working 
girls  be  allowed  certain  free  seats  at  the  opera 
aroused  a  storm  of  humourous  discussion. 

His  first  great  work  on  the  life  of  the  people 
was  the  symphony-drama  "  La  Vie  du  Poete."  At 
first  the  poet  dreams  of  his  childhood,  and  all  its 
tender  memories.  He  is  gradually  mastered  by  a 
growing  enthusiasm  that  inspires  him  to  the  utmost, 
and  he  seems  actually  to  hear  the  music  of  the 
spheres.  Then  doubt  follows;  at  first  he  is  con- 
soled by  the  calm,  serene  beauty  of  the  night,  but 
in  the  end  his  fears  gain  the  upper  hand.  Then 
follows  a  picture  of  impotence,  and  vain  anger 
against  fate,  after  which  the  poet  tries  to  drug  his 
sorrows  in  the  cheap  gaiety  of  the  city.  At  this 


GUSTAVE    CHARPENTIER. 


THE  FRENCHMEN  OF  TO-DAY  151 

point  are  introduced  all  the  cries  and  noises  of  a 
Montmartre  ball,  where  the  poet  drowns  all  remorse 
in  a  drunken  orgy. 

"  La  Couronnement  de  la  Muse  "  is  another  epi- 
sode of  city  life,  or,  rather,  a  suggestion.  Per- 
formed at  a  Montmartre  festival  in  1897,  ^  reached 
the  operatic  stage  at  Lille  in  1898.  Charpentier's 
idea  was  that  in  each  town,  once  a  year,  a  Muse 
should  be  chosen  from  among  the  working  girls 
and  crowned  solemnly.  The  work  is  a  pantomime, 
in  which  Beauty  crowns  the  Muse,  and  poets  bring 
their  adoration.  Suffering  bewails  the  lot  of 
humanity,  but  the  Muse  of  Happiness  comes,  and 
he  sinks  at  her  feet  in  adoration.  Then  followed 
an  allegorical  procession  of  workmen,  schoolmasters, 
students,  and  others,  reviewed  by  History  and 
Poetry. 

But  it  was  "  Louise  "  that  brought  fame  and  for- 
tune to  the  struggling  composer.  The  heroine  is  a 
working  girl  in  Paris,  who  is  loved  and  wooed  by 
the  poet  Julien,  but  her  mother,  discovering  this, 
objects,  and  even  Julien's  letter  to  her  father,  re- 
questing her  hand,  is  of  no  avail.  Julien's  life 
has  been  wild,  and  her  parents  try  to  persuade  her 
to  forget  him,  but  in  vain;  she  can  no  longer  read 
the  newspaper  to  her  father  as  usual,  but  breaks  into 
sobs. 


152  MODERN  COMPOSERS  OF  EUROPE 

The  second  act  shows  a  Muntmartre  square  in 
the  early  morning.  Nocturnal  revellers  are  still 
about,  and  the  noises  of  night  and  morning  blend 
in  an  orchestral  picture.  Julien  then  appears,  and 
leads  a  fantastic  march  of  his  Bohemian  friends. 
Louise  is  brought  by  her  mother  to  the  dressmaking 
shop  where  she  works,  and  after  her  mother's  de- 
parture Julien  approaches  the  door  to  tempt  her 
away;  but  she  will  not  go,  consoling  him  with 
the  statement  that  she  will  be  his  wife  later  on. 
Then  follows  a  picture  of  the  workroom,  with  its 
chattering  girls ;  its  trivial  merriment  and  the  com- 
monplace noises  from  the  street  grate  on  Louise, 
who  must  leave  in  a  fevered  condition. 

In  the  third  act  Louise  has  given  herself  to  Julien, 
with  whom  she  lives  in  a  state  of  free  love.  Their 
little  house  and  garden  seem  the  abode  of  happiness, 
and  in  the  evening  their  friends  arrange  a  charming 
festival,  at  which  Louise  is  crowned  as  Muse.  Sud- 
denly her  mother  appears,  and  persuades  her  to 
return  by  telling  her  of  her  father's  illness. 

In  the  fourth  act  her  father  wishes  her  to  remain 
at  home  and  give  up  Julien.  She  reproaches  him 
for  his  harshness,  and,  after  a  tender  scene  of  filial 
and  paternal  affection,  she  invokes  the  aid  of  the 
city  in  dramatic  fashion.  He  becomes  furious,  and 
orders  her  out,  and,  after  she  has  timidly  obeyed, 


THE   FRENCHMEN  OF   TO-DAY  153 

her  parents  break  into  sobs,  and  the  father  shakes 
his  fist  at  the  terrible  city  that  sweeps  the  unwary 
into  its  vortex. 

The  music  to  "  Louise,"  as,  in  fact,  all  of  Char- 
pentier's  music,  is  natural,  forceful,  attractive  — 
both  inspired  and  inspiring.  For  those  who  study 
musical  influences,  it  has  been  stated  that  he  shows 
traces  of  Massenet  and  Berlioz,  with  a  little  Chabrier 
mingled  in.  His  dramatic  skill  is  noteworthy,  and 
his  variety  of  emotional  expression  remarkable. 
The  man  who  can  depict  with  equal  truth  the  mur- 
murs of  the  forest,  the  divine  calm  of  night,  the 
liveliness  of  Neapolitan  folk-life,  or  the  frenzied 
gaiety  of  Montmartre,  is  certainly  endowed  with 
remarkable  natural  gifts. 

Achille  Claude  Debussy  is  by  all  odds  the  most 
typical  of  the  musical  impressionists.  Born  at  Paris 
in  1862,  he  is  decidedly  one  of  the  new  school.  A 
musician  of  great  gifts,  he  chooses  to  imbue  all 
his  music  with  a  studied  vagueness  of  effect,  and 
wander  through  a  maze  of  ever-changing  keys  and 
harmonies.  Apparently  He  tries  to  do  with  chords 
what  the  Wagnerian  Melos  did  with  unison  melody. 
The  result  is  at  first  perfectly  incomprehensible  to 
many,  but  on  repeated  hearing  and  study  his  works 
show  a  weird,  elusive  charm  that  is  worshipped  by 
the  modern  decadents  as  the  acme  of  beauty. 


154  MODERN  COMPOSERS   OF  EUROPE 

In  1884  Debussy  took  the  Prix  de  Rome  with  the 
cantata  "  L'Enfant  Prodigue,"  and  soon  after  that 
began  to  give  forth  the  novel  works  that  have  made 
him  so  adored  and  so  execrated.  "  La  Demoiselle 
Elue  "  and  "  Chimene,"  two  lyric  scenes,  first  drew 
attention  to  the  young  artist.  Then  came  the  or- 
chestral prelude  to  Mallarme's  "  L'Apres-midi  d'un 
Faune,"  a  curious  tissue  of  chords  and  modulations 
that  his  critics  call  meaningless,  but  his  admirers 
insist  is  the  very  essence  of  musical  significance. 
The  "  Nocturnes,"  entitled  "  Nuages  "  and  "  Fetes," 
are  described  by  De  Breville,  for  example,  as  pos- 
sessing the  ethereal  charm  of  a  perfume  that  per- 
vades all  the  air,  but  defies  analysis. 

A  string  quartette  is  more  formal  in  style,  or, 
rather,  less  entirely  lacking  in  form,  but  the  "  Proses 
Lyriques,"  on  subjects  of  Beaudelaire,  also  the 
"  Chansons  de  Bilitis  "  and  "  Les  Estampes,"  again 
show  the  free  style.  The  opposition  critics  have 
agreed  that  this  freedom  from  all  known  rules  and 
doctrines,  this  refined  intellectual  mania  for  novelty, 
is  wholly  absurd.  They  have  even  invented  a  term 
for  a  composer  who  indulges  in  this  liberty;  he  is 
called  "  un  cerebral,"  a  man  who  has  no  underlying 
feeling,  no  emotion  that  gives  unity  to  his  work, 
but  whose  music  comes  in  isolated  bits  from  the 
brain,  and  not  at  all  from  the  heart. 


THE  FRENCHMEN  OF  TO-DAY  155 

Debussy's  greatest  work  is  the  opera,  "  Pelleas 
and  Melisande."  His  vague  style  is  more  in  place 
in  opera  than  in  other  forms,  and  it  certainly  suits 
the  words  of  Maeterlinck,  whose  literary  work 
offers  the  same  shadowy  suggestions  that  the  com- 
poser gives  in  music.  The  plot  is  familiar  enough 
to  modern  readers;  the  old  King  Golaud,  hunting 
in  a  wood,  finds  the  beautiful  Melisande,  who  is 
lost,  and  makes  her  his  bride.  But  he  is  aged  and 
ugly,  and  his  handsome  younger  brother,  Pelleas, 
soon  wins  and  returns  the  affections  of  the  bride. 
There  are  love-scenes,  and  jealousy,  and  surprises, 
whereupon  Golaud  kills  Pelleas,  and  the  gentle 
Melisande  wastes  away  to  her  death.  In  the  seem- 
ingly monotonous  jumble  of  harmonies  there  are 
many  passages  that  grow  clear,  and  express  the 
situation  wonderfully  well;  but,  taking  all  of  De- 
bussy's music,  as  a  whole,  it  seems  that  he  has 
often  gone  too  far  afield,  and  lost  himself  in  the 
devious  paths  of  musical  impressionism. 

Ernest  Chausson,  had  he  lived,  would  undoubtedly 
have  become  one  of  France's  greatest  composers. 
Born  in  1855,  he  was  trained  by  his  parents  for 
the  profession  of  law;  but,  like  many  other  musi- 
cians since  the  days  of  Schumann,  he  found  such 
a  career  too  uninviting,  and  at  twenty-five  turned 
to  music.  He  studied  with  Massenet  at  the  conserv- 


156  MODERN  COMPOSERS   OF  EUROPE 

atory,  then  for  two  years  with  Franck.  His  com- 
fortable financial  circumstances  did  not  prevent  him 
from  showing  remarkable  diligence,  and  he  soon 
mastered  his  art.  The  great  works  that  he  produced 
were  barely  beginning  to  become  known  when,  in 
1899,  while  riding  a  bicycle  down  a  hill  at  his  Limay 
estate,  he  lost  control  of  the  machine,  and  was  killed 
by  being  dashed  against  a  stone  wall. 

The  list  of  works  that  he  has  left  is  fairly  ample. 
It  includes  a  noble  symphony,  the  beautiful  sym- 
phonic poem  "  Viviane,"  the  orchestral  pictures 
"  Solitude  dans  les  Bois  "  and  "  Soir  de  Fete,"  a 
"  Poe'me "  for  violin  and  orchestra,  several  pieces 
of  chamber  music,  a  number  of  choruses,  and  some 
remarkably  pleasing  songs.  In  opera,  his  great 
work  was  "  Le  Roi  Arthus."  He  brought  to  his 
music  a  rare  skill  in  the  handling  of  harmonic 
masses,  and  a  most  captivating  power  of  expres- 
sion. His  works  are  full  of  tenderness  and  charm, 
yet  not  lacking  in  the  more  passionate  vigour  that 
carries  conviction  to  the  hearer.  He  felt  the  full  force 
of  the  modern  harmonic  richness,  the  wealth  of  or- 
chestral colour.  Had  he  lived  he  might  have  hoped 
for  everything,  and  even  now  his  works  place  him  far 
above  the  seekers  after  strange  gods  who  are  mis- 
leading France  to-day. 

Theodore  Dubois,  head  of  the  conservatory  in 


THE  FRENCHMEN  OF   TO-DAY  157 

Paris,  is  no  less  prominent  in  composition  than  in 
teaching.  He  was  born  at  Rosnay  in  1837,  studied 
in  the  conservatory,  and  gained  the  coveted  sojourn 
in  Rome,  where  he  wrote  a  Messe  Solennelle,  an 
Italian  opera,  and  two  overtures.  Returning  to 
Paris,  he  became  leader  at  Ste.  Clotilde,  then  at 
the  Madeleine,  and  finally  organist  at  the  latter 
church,  succeeding  Saint-Saens.  At  the  conserva- 
tory he  became  harmony  professor  in  1871,  to  which 
he  added  composition  twenty  years  later,  and  finally, 
in  1896,  the  directorship. 

Of  his  several  oratorios,  "  Paradise  Lost  "  is  best 
known  in  America.  He  has  produced  four  operas, 
and  the  ballet  "  La  Farandole."  In  the  orchestral 
field  he  has  written  several  suites  and  concertos, 
the  symphonic  poem  "  Adonis,"  and  a  number  of 
overtures,  including  "  Frithjof." 

His  successor  at  the  Madeleine  was  Gabriel  Faure, 
one  of  the  few  pupils  of  Saint-Saens.  Faure,  unlike 
most  Frenchmen,  has  written  no  opera,  but  he  has 
produced  a  symphony,  two  string  quartettes,  and 
a  number  of  exquisite  songs.  At  times  he  displays 
the  modern  French  tendency  of  wandering  through 
a  labyrinth  of  harmonies,  but  his  music  shows  many 
rare  beauties.  Another  organist-composer  is  Charles 
Marie  Widor,  who  is  responsible  for  the  opera 
"  Maitre  Ambros,"  a  delightful  ballet,  "  La  Korri- 


158  MODERN  COMPOSERS   OF  EUROPE 

gane,"  and  much  organ  and  instrumental  music. 
Still  another  famous  organist  is  Alexandre  Guil- 
mant,  who  teaches  at  the  conservatory.  His  works 
are  more  confined  to  his  instrument,  but  his  great 
organ  symphony  wins  repeated  hearings. 

Louis  Albert  Bourgault-Ducoudray,  the  teacher 
of  musical  history,  has  made  a  name  for  himself 
by  his  erudite  researches  in  Breton  folk-songs  and 
musical  antiquities.  He  has  written  a  choral  sym- 
phony, a  fantasie,  the  "  Carnaval  d'Athenes,"  the 
"  Burial  of  Ophelia,"  several  cantatas,  including 
"  Au  Souvenir  de  Roland,"  the  operas  "  Bretagne  " 
and  "  Thamara,"  and  numerous  lesser  works. 

Henri  Duparc's  symphonic  poem  "  Lenore  "  has 
been  given  an  American  hearing.  Guy  de  Ropartz 
and  Pierre  de  Breville  rank  among  the  best  of 
Franck's  pupils,  and  bring  to  their  work  a  thorough 
earnestness.  Gabriel  Pierne  has  written  many 
operas  and  some  incidental  music,  his  "  Vendee  " 
and  "  Fille  de  Tabarin  "  being  among  his  many 
successes.  Arthur  Coquard's  operas,  "  L'fipee  du 
Roi,"  "  Le  Mari  d'un  Jour,"  "  L'Oiseau  Bleu,"  and 
"  La  Jacquerie,"  have  met  with  favourable  recep- 
tion. Rene  de  Boisdeffre  and  Charles  Lefebvre  are 
also  worthy  of  high  rank,  the  latter's  lyric  drama 
"  Judith  "  and  other  works  being  in  frequent  de- 
mand. Paul  Dukas  has  won  renown  as  a  sym- 


THE  FRENCHMEN  OF   TO-DAY  159 

phonist,  while  Camilla  Erlanger  and  Georges  Hue 
are  two  noteworthy  composers  in  the  operatic  field. 
Gabriel  Dupont,  with  "  La  Cabrera,"  won  a  Son- 
zogno  prize,  in  competition  with  such  Italian  works 
as  "  II  Domino  Azzuro,"  by  Franco  da  Venezia, 
and  Lorenzo  Filiasi's  "  Manuel  Mendes."  The 
melodic  freshness  and  piquancy  of  Chaminade's 
songs  and  other  works  have  made  her  known  in 
both  hemispheres.  The  list  might  be  extended  al- 
most indefinitely,  for  the  prestige  of  France  in 
opera  and  the  new  national  movement  have  in- 
fluenced a  host  of  ambitious  young  writers  to  enter 
the  struggle  for  musical  fame. 


CHAPTER    VII. 

ITALY 

THREE  hundred  years  or  more  ago  opera  had  its 
origin  in  Italy,  and  other  nations  were  proud  to 
copy  the  novelty.  Soon  after  this  the  beginning  of 
musical  form  came  in  the  shape  of  early  sonatas, 
while  Tartini  and  Corelli  gave  lustre  to  a  school 
of  violin  playing  that  led  the  world,  and  the  two 
Scarlattis  brought  further  glory  to  their  land  by 
their  compositions.  But  at  the  end  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  when  foreigners  came  to  Italy  to  study, 
her  own  people  remained  satisfied  with  their  work, 
and  paid  no  heed  to  the  advances  made  in  other 
lands.  Mozart,  Beethoven,  and  the  classicists 
sprang  up  in  Germany,  and  Weber  created  a 
national  style,  as  Wagner  did  at  a  later  date;  while 
in  France  Rossini  conformed  to  the  advanced  stand- 
ards and  produced  "  William  Tell,"  after  which 
he  became  a  mere  spectator  of  the  triumphs  of 
Meyerbeer,  Gounod,  Saint-Saens,  and  others.  Mean- 
while the  Italians  went  on  in  their  blind  career, 

160 


ITALY  l6l 

producing  that  copious  stream  of  trivial  melodies 
which  had  supplied  their  petty  theatres  for  so  many 
years. 

In  1850  there  were  almost  no  concert-halls  in 
Italy,  and  even  the  churches  were  content  with 
operatic  airs  set  to  sacred  words.  It  was  not  to 
be  expected  that  such  musical  decadence  could  be 
remedied  in  a  day,  but  the  last  half-century  shows 
a  series  of  continued  efforts  to  bring  about  a  musical 
regeneration.  First  came  the  reorganization  of  the 
conservatories  at  Florence,  Turin,  Milan,  Rome,  and 
elsewhere.  The  organs,  which  Saint-Saens  found 
so  wretched  when  he  played  at  Milan  in  1879,  are 
now  kept  in  excellent  condition,  and  played  by  cul- 
tivated musicians  and  composers.  The  sacred  music, 
practically  non-existent,  was  brought  into  being  by 
the  offer  of  prizes  for  four-part  masses  and  other 
works.  The  labours  of  Bishop  Caligari,  in  Padua, 
and  of  Bossi,  in  Venice,  vastly  improved  the  sit- 
uation in  recent  years.  At  present  the  sacred  music 
of  Italy  is  practically  summed  up  in  one  name  — 
that  of  Perosi. 

Don  Lorenzo  Perosi  was  born  at  Tortona,  on 
December  23,  1872.  His  youth  was  much  troubled 
by  sickness,  but  he  pursued  his  musical  studies  faith- 
fully while  undergoing  his  priestly  training.  His 
first  serious  lessons  were  taken  at  the  Milan  con- 


1 62  MODERN  COMPOSERS   OF  EUROPE 

servatory,  while  in  1894  he  became  a  pupil  of  the 
learned  Fr.  Haberl,  at  the  Cathedral  Singing  School 
of  Ratisbon.  The  next  year  found  him  conducting 
at  Imola,  where  he  led  his  forces  in  the  most  lively 
and  enthusiastic  fashion.  Two  years  later  he  ful- 
filled the  same  functions  at  the  San  Marco,  in 
Venice. 

In  that  year  he  produced  the  first  of  the  great 
works  that  have  made  his  name  so  familiar  and 
caused  so  much  discussion.  His  sacred  trilogy, 
"  The  Passion  of  Christ,"  including  the  Last  Sup- 
per, the  Sermon  on  the  Mount,  and  the  death  of 
the  Redeemer,  made  a  sensation  that  reverberated 
through  all  Italy,  and  caused  his  appointment  in 
the  following  year  as  honorary  master  of  the  Papal 
Choir.  Both  before  and  since  that  date  Perosi 
has  been  indefatigable  as  a  composer,  having  written 
no  less  than  fifteen  masses  and  nearly  a  dozen  ora- 
torios. The  latter  include  "  The  Transfiguration," 
"  The  Annunciation,"  "  The  Raising  of  Lazarus," 
"The  Birth  of  the  Redeemer,"  and  the  two-part 
"  Moses." 

Perosi  carries  his  enthusiasm  into  the  work  of 
composition.  He  sees  the  actual  picture  before  him 
as  he  writes,  and  is  wholly  absorbed  by  the  subject 
in  hand.  His  music  reflects  his  temperament,  for, 
while  it  aims  to  follow  the  old  and  strict  styles,  it 


DON    LORENZO    PEROSI. 


ITALY  163 

blends  with  them  a  most  modern  feeling  for 
dramatic  effect.  Perosi  is  not  of  the  school  of 
Palestrina,  but  stands  midway  between  that  and 
the  popular  vein.  He  is  eminently  fitted  for  the 
present,  however,  and  has  done  an  excellent  service 
in  paving  the  way  for  a  return  to  the  classical 
dignity  that  once  existed  in  Italian  church  music. 
The  recent  edicts  of  the  Pope  are  probably  aimed 
to  bring  this  about,  through  Perosi's  music. 

The  growth  of  Italian  opera  has  been  longer  in 
evidence,  and  is  a  more  familiar  story  to  musical 
readers.  The  singing-concerts  that  bore  the  name 
of  opera  in  Italy  are  not  now  held  up  as  models 
of  art,  and  only  a  few  of  them  remain  popular,  to 
serve  as  a  medium  of  display  for  some  vocally  agile 
prima  donna.  Yet  it  is  hardly  more  than  thirty 
years  since  the  period  of  utter  ignorance  of  German 
music,  and  the  ludicrous  attacks  on  Wagner  and 
other  leaders  of  that  nation.  The  growth  of  a  saner 
and  more  intelligent  journalism  in  Italy  is  due 
largely  to  the  patient  campaign  of  education  con- 
ducted by  Luigi  Torchi  and  his  associates. 

In  1868  a  young  composer  named  Arrigo  Boito, 
who  had  studied  in  Germany,  had  the  temerity  to 
produce  an  opera  which  contained  something  more 
than  mere  coloratur  arias.  The  appearance  of 
"  Mefistofele  "  was  the  signal  for  a  series  of  furious 


1 64  MODERN  COMPOSERS   OF  EUROPE 

attacks,  which  form  strange  reading  today,  in  view 
of  the  subsequent  success  of  the  work.  Boito  then 
turned  his  own  efforts  to  the  field  of  journalism, 
and  composed  nothing  more  for  many  years.  Now 
he  is  ready  to  give  out  a  second  work,  "  Nero,"  with 
a  gory  plot  in  which  the  emperor,  after  burying 
his  murdered  mother,  falls  in  love  with  the  beautiful 
Asteria.  The  crafty  Simon  Mago  tries  to  use  this 
passion  for  his  own  purposes,  but  is  finally  con- 
demned to  die.  At  the  Circus,  where  the  Christian 
martyrs  are  burned,  Simon  is  to  jump  from  a  tower, 
but  he  tries  to  save  himself  by  starting  a  fire.  Rome 
burns,  and  the  emperor,  after  visions  of  terror,  meets 
death  by  a  lightning-stroke.  The  plot  shows  the 
influence  of  the  new  Italian  realism,  but  Boito's  long 
career  as  an  excellent  librettist  for  Verdi  and  other 
composers  is  a  warrant  that  it  will  be  effective  on 
the  stage. 

The  work  of  Verdi,  while  not  in  direct  imitation 
of  Wagner,  has  shown  the  influence  of  German 
musical  standards.  He  did  not  remain  silent  after 
his  advance  in  "  Aida,"  as  Rossini  did  after  "  Will- 
iam Tell,"  but  produced  the  powerful  "  Otello  "  and 
the  sparkling  "  Falstaff."  But  a  really  character- 
istic style  of  opera  did  not  appear  until  1890,  when 
the  prize  offered  by  the  publisher  Sonzogno  was  won 


ITALY  165 

by  the  unknown  composer  Mascagni,  with  his 
"  Cavalleria  Rusticana." 

Pietro  Mascagni  was  born  at  Leghorn  on  Decem- 
ber 7,  1863.  Son  of  a  baker  who  wished  him  to 
become  a  lawyer,  he  studied  piano  secretly,  and  other 
musical  subjects  as  time  went  on.  At  the  age  of 
fourteen  he  was  discovered  and  locked  up  by  his 
father,  but  rescued  by  an  uncle,  and  afterward  be- 
friended by  Count  Florestan,  who  had  him  study 
at  Milan.  He  became  conductor  of  many  small 
opera  troupes,  finally  leading  the  musical  society  at 
Cerignola,  when  his  successful  prize  opera  brought 
him  at  one  bound  into  a  position  of  international 
prominence. 

"  Rustic  Chivalry,"  with  its  betrayed  Santuzza 
revealing  to  the  carter  Alfio  the  intrigue  that  his 
wife  Lola  is  carrying  on  with  her  former  lover 
Turiddu,  and  the  latter's  death  at  Alfio's  hands, 
marked  the  beginning  of  the  realistic,  or  "  Verismo," 
school.  It  was  fiercely  assailed  by  many  critics,  but 
it  has  a  note  of  truth  and  a  savage  power  that  can- 
not fail  to  impress  its  many  hearers.  The  music, 
composite  in  style,  is  full  of  many  beautiful  and 
modern  effects,  and  is  entirely  free  from  the  earlier 
Italian  banality.  The  "  Siciliana "  of  Turiddu 
(sung  as  part  of  the  overture,  before  the  curtain 
rises),  the  broad  and  noble  "  Regina  Cceli,"  Lola's 


1 66  MODERN  COMPOSERS  OF  EUROPE 

serene  aria,  "  My  King  of  Roses,"  and  the  jolly 
"  Brindisi,"  would  assure  the  success  of  any  opera, 
to  say  nothing  of  the  saccharine  "  Intermezzo." 

Though  Mascagni  can  hardly  claim  rank  as  a 
composer  of  the  first  class,  the  power  and  vividness 
of  "  Cavalleria  "  deserve  all  praise.  His  later  works, 
however,  have  not  come  up  to  the  same  stand- 
ard. "  L'Amico  Fritz,"  based  on  the  Erckmann- 
Chatrian  novel,  was  decidedly  unsuited  to  the  sen- 
sational style,  and  demanded  a  gentler  hand.  "  I 
Rantzau "  met  with  some  favour  in  Italy,  and 
"  Guglielmo  Ratcliff "  and  "  Silvano  "  also  won 
partial  successes.  The  one-act  sketch  "  Zanetto  " 
was  pleasing  enough,  and  "  Iris "  gained  some 
recognition.  But  none  of  these  works  has  found 
favour  in  other  nations,  as  the  failure  of  Mascagni's 
American  tour  will  bear  witness.  In  1901  he  pro- 
duced "  Le  Maschere,"  which  was  performed  simul- 
taneously in  six  different  cities,  and  made  six  fail- 
ures instead  of  one.  He  has  just  completed  a  new 
one-act  opera,  in  three  scenes,  entitled  "  Arnica," 
treating  of  a  Savoyard  love-story  with  a  tragic 
ending.  This  work  is  already  in  the  Monte  Carlo 
list. 

The  success  of  "  Rustic  Chivalry  "  aroused  Rug- 
giero  Leoncavallo  to  try  his  hand  in  the  same  school. 
His  first  opera,  "  Chatterton,"  had  failed,  though  in 


PIETRO    MASCAGNI. 


ITALY  167 

later  years  it  has  met  with  some  success.  A  disciple 
of  Wagner,  he,  too,  produced  an  ambitious  trilogy, 
consisting  of  "  I  Medici,"  "  Savonarola,"  and 
"  Cesare  Borgia  " ;  but  the  large  work  found  small 
appreciation.  Leoncavallo  had  made  piano  tours 
in  Greece  and  Egypt,  had  lived  in  Paris  some  years, 
and  had  seen  a  private  performance  of  his  "  Songe 
d'une  Nuit  d'£te  " ;  but  fame  seemed  out  of  his 
reach  until  the  production  of  his  "  Pagliacci." 

The  story  of  these  strolling  players  (Pag- 
liacci) was  written  by  the  composer  himself. 
Tonio,  the  clown,  overhears  Nedda  planning  elope- 
ment with  the  villager  Silvio,  and  in  jealous  rage 
denounces  her  to  her  husband  Canio,  but  Silvio 
escapes  unrecognized.  In  the  play  that  the  little 
company  gives  for  the  villagers  the  situation  hap- 
pens to  be  much  like  the  reality,  and  Canio,  actuated 
by  real  instead  of  mimic  passion,  stabs  Nedda. 
Silvio  leaps  from  the  audience  to  save  her,  only 
to  meet  a  similar  death.  The  music  of  this  play, 
if  less  popular  than  that  of  "  Rustic  Chivalry,"  is 
remarkably  well-knit  and  powerful,  and  the  work 
has  become  a  universal  success.  Leoncavallo  has 
produced  a  symphonic  poem,  "  Serafitus-Serafita," 
and  several  later  operas,  among  them  being  "  La 
Tosca,"  "  Trilby  "  and  "  Zaza."  He  has  recently 
been  occupied  in  setting  "  Roland  of  Berlin,"  a 


1 68  MODERN  COMPOSERS    OF  EUROPE 

libretto  furnished  to  him  by  the  versatile  Emperor  of 
Germany. 

Umberto  Giordano  is  another  famous  Italian 
realist.  His  "  Mala  Vita "  depicts  the  upward 
struggle  of  a  fallen  girl  of  the  streets,  and  her 
undeserved  failure  through  the  desertion  of  the  man 
who  should  save  her,  but  who  sacrifices  her  to  carry 
on  an  intrigue.  Giordano's  "  Andrea  Chenier  "  has 
won  some  success,  while  "  Regina  Diaz  "  is  an  earlier 
work.  "  Fedora  "  and  the  much-talked-of  "  Si- 
beria "  are  his  latest  productions. 

It  seems  as  if  the  "  Verismo  "  school  insisted  on 
a  realism  that  pictured  only  the  most  brutal  side 
of  life.  Spinelli's  "  A  Basso  Porto  "  and  Tasca's 
"  A  Santa  Lucia  "  exhibit  this  characteristic  in  their 
music  as  well  as  their  librettos,  the  latter's  "  Per- 
golese "  being  a  subsequent  failure.  Coronaro's 
"  Festa  a  Marina  "  was  second  to  "  Rustic  Chiv- 
alry "  in  the  prize  contest,  and  had  its  day  of  popu- 
larity. He  has  written  a  symphony,  and  several 
later  operas,  including  "  Enoch  Arden  "  and  "  Un 
Curioso  Accidente."  Cilea's  "  Arlesiana "  and 
"  Adriana  Lecouvreur  "  are  works  in  the  old  style, 
while  "  Tilda,"  an  earlier  opera,  is  still  less  im- 
portant. A  recent  echo  of  realism  is  Cesare  Rossi's 
"  Nadeya,"  the  story  of  a  vivandiere  who  becomes 
the  wife  of  Peter  the  Great,  but  is  brought  to  dis- 


ITALY  169 

credit  and  death  by  a  jealous  officer.  Rossi  has  also 
written  "  Biorn,"  on  a  Norwegian  subject,  and  a 
confused  setting  of  "  Macbeth."  Orefice  has  created 
the  medley  "  Chopin,"  made  up  of  that  master's 
themes,  and  the  recent  "  Cecilia,"  which  failed  partly 
because  of  difficulties  in  the  vocal  parts.  His  sacred 
opera,  "  Moses,"  is  soon  to  appear.  A  posthumous 
opera  of  Ponchielli,  "  I  Mori  di  Valenza,"  is  not 
likely  to  prove  a  startling  novelty. 

There  are  many  Italian  composers  who  have  stood 
somewhat  aloof  from  the  "  Verismo  "  movement, 
and  who,  if  not  actually  followers  of  Wagner,  have 
yet  upheld  higher  musical  ideas  than  those  of  the 
dime-novel  style  of  opera  composers.  In  fact,  the 
success  of  "  Hansel  and  Gretel  "  resulted  in  a  return 
to  less  crude  subjects  and  less  brutal  music.  Among 
the  supporters  of  this  movement  Mancinelli  is  well 
known  in  America,  though  more  through  his  con- 
ducting than  through  his  opera,  "  Ero  e  Leandre." 
Catalani,  who  wrote  several  operas  in  the  romantic 
vein,  met  with  an  early  death  in  1893.  A  com- 
poser who  is  spoken  of  in  the  highest  terms  by 
many  Italian  musicians  is  Alberto  Franchetti. 

Franchetti,  born  at  Turin  in  1850,  studied  at  the 
Munich  conservatory.  His  dramatic  legend,  "  As- 
raele,"  produced  at  Brescia,  aroused  much  interest. 
He  followed  this  with  several  operas,  all  of  which 


I/O  MODERN  COMPOSERS  OF  EUROPE 

have  met  with  decided  success.  "  Cristoforo  Co- 
lombo "  appeared  at  Genoa  in  1892,  and  two  years 
later  "  Fior  d'Alpe  "  was  given  at  Milan.  "  Ger- 
mania  "  was  also  a  very  successful  work.  A  more 
recent  opera,  "  II  Signer  di  Pourceaugnac,"  based 
on  Moliere's  "  Malade  Imaginaire,"  brought  the 
composer  more  than  a  dozen  recalls  when  performed 
in  Rome  before  an  audience  of  the  highest  rank. 
His  "  Figlia  di  Jorio  "  is  to  appear  soon.  Fran- 
chetti's  great  gifts  are  evident  in  the  symphony  that 
he  has  written,  and,  if  we  may  trust  the  enthusiasm 
of  his  critics,  he  is  one  of  the  very  best  of  the  living 
Italian  composers. 

When  Verdi  was  about  to  retire  from  musical 
activity,  he  named  as  his  probable  successor  a  man 
who  was  scarcely  known  outside  of  his  own  country 
—  Giacomo  Puccini.  Puccini  was  born  at  L»ucca, 
in  1858.  Descended  from  a  long  line  of  musical 
ancestors,  he  was  enabled  to  follow  his  career  with- 
out parental  opposition,  and  his  studies  began  in  his 
native  town.  Continuing  under  Ponchielli  at  Milan, 
he  graduated  from  the  conservatory  with  a  "  Ca- 
priccio  Sinfonico  "  that  gave  ample  evidence  of  his 
talent.  In  later  life  he  returned  to  the  institution 
as  professor  of  composition. 

His  first  opera,  "  Le  Villi,"  produced  in  1884, 
was  really  the  origin  of  the  one-act  plays  that  have 


GIACOMO    PUCCINI, 


ITALY  171 

been  so  favoured  by  Mascagni  and  the  realists.  It 
is  based  on  the  northern  legend  of  the  Villi,  or 
Wilis,  spirits  of  affianced  maidens  whose  lovers 
have  proved  unfaithful.  The  scene  is  laid  in  a  Black 
Forest  village,  where  Robert,  betrothed  to  the  damsel 
Anna,  learns  of  a  fortune  awaiting  him  at  Mainz. 
He  proceeds  to  that  town,  and  there  forgets  Anna 
to  plunge  into  an  intrigue.  She  dies  broken-hearted, 
and  on  his  return  he  is  drawn  into  the  circling  dance 
of  the  Wilis  and  whirled  about  until  he  drops  life- 
less. 

"  Edgar,"  appearing  five  years  later,  was  less  suc- 
cessful because  of  a  weaker  libretto.  The  hero  falls 
in  love  with  a  beautiful  gipsy,  and  is  beguiled  to 
her  mountain  retreat.  Tiring  of  her,  he  departs 
to  the  wars.  On  his  return  he  finds  happiness  in 
the  arms  of  a  village  maiden,  who  has  loved  him 
from  the  first;  but  the  vengeful  gipsy  contrives  to 
stab  her  rival,  who  dies  in  his  arms  while  the  mur- 
deress is  dragged  to  the  scaffold.  The  score  of  this 
Italian  "  Carmen  "  contains  some  attractive  melodies 
and  rich  orchestration,  but  is  often  laboured  and 
ineffective. 

"  Manon  Lescaut,"  founded  on  Prevost's  novel, 
seems  rather  a  succession  of  detached  scenes  than 
a  coherent  whole.  In  the  first  act  the  heroine 
chooses  to  flee  with  Des  Grieux  rather  than  enter  a 


MODERN  COMPOSERS  OF  EUROPE 

convent.  In  the  next,  she  leaves  him,  but  is  per- 
suaded to  return,  when  her  irate  protector  consigns 
her  to  St.  Lazare.  The  third  act  shows  the  em- 
barkation for  America,  while  the  fourth  is  a  long 
love-duet,  ending  in  Manon's  death.  Less  sac- 
charine than  Massenet's  work,  this  opera  shows  that 
Puccini  had  gained  a  mastery  of  dramatic  effect. 
The  finale  of  the  third  act,  where  Des  Grieux  and 
Manon  bid  farewell  amid  the  confusion  of  the  popu- 
lace and  the  monotonous  roll-call  of  the  sergeant, 
certainly  foreshadows  the  dramatic  power  of 
"  Tosca." 

In  "La  Boheme,"  the  inseparable  quartette  of 
Murger's  novel  are  found  in  their  little  attic  of  the 
Latin  Quarter,  where  they  bid  a  rollicking  defiance 
to  landlord's  bills  and  the  pangs  of  hunger.  The 
dashing  Musetta  coquets  with  the  faithful  Marcel, 
but  returns  to  him  at  last,  while  the  gentle  Mimi, 
loved  by  the  poet  Rudolph,  is  brought  back  after  a 
quarrel,  only  to  die  in  his  arms.  The  music  is  by 
turns  lively  and  tender,  and  gives  a  dashing  picture 
of  the  scenes.  The  note  of  haunting  sweetness  that 
pervades  the  score  marks  the  composer  as  a  man 
of  rare  musical  gifts. 

With  "  La  Boheme,"  "  Tosca  "  has  become  fa- 
miliar to  operatic  audiences  in  many  countries.  The 
love  of  that  heroine  for  the  political  refugee  Mario, 


ITALY  173 

the  effort  of  the  unscrupulous  Scarpia  to  force  her 
to  his  will  by  torturing  Mario,  her  pretended  sub- 
mission, her  stabbing  of  the  persecutor  when  all  else 
fails,  and  the  death  of  Mario  after  Scarpia  had 
promised  that  his  execution  should  be  merely  pre- 
tended, form  a  plot  that  is  almost  too  strong  for 
the  operatic  stage.  But  the  music  is  worthy  of  the 
libretto,  and  its  many  touches  of  graphic  realism 
show  the  skilled  hand  of  the  master.  After  four 
years  of  success,  "  Tosca "  remains  by  far  the 
strongest  work  that  has  come  from  Italy  since 
Verdi's  death. 

There  seems  to  be  a  desire  for  imitation  among 
all  stage  composers.  Does  Humperdinck  win  suc- 
cess with  a  fairy  opera,  Goldmark  must  at  once 
follow  with  another  in  the  same  style.  Mascagni 
showed  the  way  for  Leoncavallo,  and  "  Edgar  "  has 
already  been  spoken  of  as  a  possible  echo  of  "  Car- 
men." But  Puccini,  after  his  two  great  successes, 
was  decidedly  an  object  of  attention,  and  it  seems 
a  pity  that  his  latest  venture  has  not  equalled  the 
preceding  triumphs.  "  Madame  Butterfly,"  recently 
produced  in  Italy,  has  met  with  little  encourage- 
ment, and  the  failure  of  Mascagni's  "  Iris  "  should 
have  shown  the  difficulty  of  setting  a  Japanese  sub- 
ject. Puccini's  music  is  still  lacking  in  some  of  the 
more  delicate  touches  needed  for  such  a  libretto. 


174  MODERN  COMPOSERS  OF  EUROPE 

But,  in  spite  of  this  setback,  he  is  to-day  the  fore- 
most man  in  Italy,  and  his  mature  and  seasoned 
skill  will  undoubtedly  be  shown  in  future  works. 

It  is  now  several  decades  since  the  day  when  Italy 
possessed  no  symphonists.  Yet  it  is  true  that  in 
the  sixties  Italy  had  no  concert-composers  of  her 
own,  and  cared  nothing  for  those  of  other  countries. 
At  an  orchestral  concert  organized  by  Pinelli,  in 
that  early  time,  sixty  musicians  were  engaged,  and 
the  box-office  receipts  left  only  fourteen  francs  with 
which  to  pay  them.  Sgambati  produced  a  Beethoven 
symphony  in  Rome,  but  had  to  pay  for  it  out  of 
his  own  pocket.  In  1870  the  queen  gave  her  sup- 
port, and  this  patronage  brought  other  adherents. 
The  Orchestral  Society  founded  at  Rome  by  Pinelli 
met  with  opposition  from  two  distinct  parties  — 
those  who  cared  nothing  for  instrumental  music, 
and  those  who  were  bound  to  fight  German  in- 
fluence at  any  cost.  But  gradually  the  cause  of 
pure  music  triumphed,  and  many  other  cities  joined 
in  the  movement. 

Giovanni  Sgambati,  the  leader  of  the  Italian  sym- 
phonists, was  born  in  Rome  on  May  28,  1843. 
Destined  for  the  lawyer's  career  that  seems  the 
usual  fate  of  young  musicians,  he  was  afterward 
allowed  to  follow  his  inclinations,  and  at  Trevi 
he  became  something  of  a  child-prodigy.  At  the 


ITALY  175 

age  of  twenty-seven  he  settled  in  Rome,  where  he 
soon  grew  famous  as  a  pianist.  His  programmes 
were  classical  in  character,  and  included  the  works 
of  Beethoven,  Schumann,  and  Chopin.  In  fact,  his 
concerts  did  much  to  introduce  these  masters  to  the 
Italian  public. 

Sgambati  planned  to  go  to  Germany  for  further 
study,  but  circumstances  made  this  unnecessary. 
Franz  Liszt,  disgusted  with  the  non-success  of  the 
works  of  Cornelius  and  others,  which  he  had  brought 
out  at  Weimar,  left  that  classic  city  in  disgust, 
and  settled  in  Rome.  Under  his  sympathetic 
guidance,  Sgambati  became  the  foremost  of  the 
Italian  pianists.  The  two  men  remained  firm  friends, 
and  in  1869  the  master  took  his  great  pupil  to  Ger- 
many, where  they  heard  Wagnerian  operas  in 
Munich. 

At  this  time,  his  compositions  began  to  win  him 
a  name  among  the  elect.  He  had  made  a  friend  of 
the  Prussian  ambassador,  and  at  the  concerts  given 
by  the  embassy  he  produced  many  of  his  works. 
In  1877,  Wagner  heard  some  of  them,  and  his  warm 
recommendation  resulted  in  the  publication  of  two 
Sgambati  quintettes  by  the  German  firm  of  Schott. 
The  early  works  included  also  a  string  quartette,  and 
the  overture  to  Cassa's  drama,  "  Cola  di  Rienzi." 
Now  the  composer  was  moved  to  further  efforts, 


176  MODERN  COMPOSERS   OF  EUROPE 

producing  a  festival  orchestra,  a  piano  concerto, 
another  quartette,  and  his  first  symphony.  He  has 
since  then  brought  out  two  other  works  in  sym- 
phonic form,  and  to-day  he  stands  at  the  head  of 
Italy's  instrumental  music.  His  compositions  are 
somewhat  lacking  in  spontaneity,  but  they  show 
great  learning,  and  undeniable  skill.  He  follows 
Liszt  and  Berlioz  rather  than  Wagner,  and  at  times 
tries  to  fuse  this  modern  tendency  with  the  stricter 
vein  of  the  early  Italian  contrapuntal  writers.  He 
is  at  present  a  teacher  and  orchestral  leader  in 
Rome. 

Giuseppe  Martucci,  though  little  known  outside 
of  his  own  country,  is  rated  very  highly  by  those 
who  know  his  work.  Born  at  Capua  in  1856,  he 
studied  at  first  with  his  father,  going  later  to  Naples. 
In  that  city  he  fought  for  the  same  standards  that 
Sgambati  upheld  in  Rome,  and  like  his  Roman 
rival  he  was  both  pianist  and  conductor.  His  or- 
chestral path  was  made  easy  by  the  Prince  d'Ar- 
dori,  and  both  the  symphonic  and  the  chamber 
concerts  were  well  supported.  Martucci  has  made 
many  successful  tours  as  a  pianist,  and  has  won 
fame  in  composition  by  his  symphony,  his  piano 
concerto,  and  many  other  works.  He  was  for  six- 
teen years  director  of  the  conservatory  at  Bologna, 
and  at  present  he  occupies  a  similar  position  in 


ITALY  177 

Naples.  Among  many  others  who  have  striven 
to  create  a  symphonic  school  in  Italy,  the  name  of 
Edgardo  Del  Valle  de  Paz  dese^es  mention,  both 
for  his  compositions  and  for  his  educational  work 
in  Florence.  He,  too,  has  been  a  successful  pianist. 
Ferrucio  Busoni,  so  well  known  in  America,  has 
produced  a  symphonic  poem  and  other  works. 

Among  those  who  are  distinctively  German  in 
style,  Eugenic  di  Pirani  has  long  been  famous. 
Born  in  1852,  at  Ferrara,  he  was  educated  in 
Germany,  studying  piano  with  Kullak  and  com- 
position with  Kiel.  He  lived  in  Heidelberg  until 
1895,  removing  then  to  Berlin.  He  has  written 
many  bright  essays,  but  his  fame  rests  almost  wholly 
on  his  works,  such  as  the  symphonic  poem  "  Heidel- 
berg," and  the  one-act  opera  "  Das  Hexenlied." 
The  latter  deals  with  the  mediaeval  persecution  of 
witches.  The  heroine  is  the  beautiful  Renata,  who 
sings  while  gathering  herbs,  and  charms  all  hearers. 
The  bigoted  monk  Martinus  denounces  her  as  a 
witch,  and  not  even  Brother  Medaurus,  who  loves 
her,  can  save  her.  He  determines  to  die  at  the 
stake  with  her,  but  she  takes  poison,  so  that  he 
may  live. 

The  most  prominent  figure  of  the  younger  German 
devotees  is  Marco  Enrico  Bossi.  Born  at  Salo  in 
1 86 1,  he  studied  organ  at  first,  becoming  conductor 


178  MODERN  COMPOSERS   OF  EUROPE 

and  organist  at  the  Como  cathedral  in  1881.  After 
ten  years  in  this  post,  he  passed  four  more  as  profes- 
sor of  organ  and  harmony  at  the  Naples  conserva- 
tory, since  when  he  has  beeen  director  of  the  Liceo 
Benedetto  Marcello,  at  Venice. 

The  works  of  Bossi  take  foremost  rank  for  orig- 
inality and  variety.  His  earlier  compositions  in- 
clude an  overture,  given  during  a  piano  tour,  at 
the  Crystal  Palace;  the  one-act  opera  "  Paquita," 
which  took  a  prize  at  the  Milan  conservatory;  and 
many  works  for  the  organ,  upon  which  he  is  the 
most  proficient  performer  that  Italy  possesses.  His 
later  operas  include  "  L'Angelo  della  Notte "  and 
"  II  Veggento,"  and  he  has  also  produced  a  sym- 
phonic poem,  "  II  Cieco,"  with  tenor  solo  and 
chorus.  In  the  sacred  field  he  has  written  many 
masses,  and  the  oratorio-drama  "  Christus."  His 
organ  concerto  was  given  at  the  Chicago  fair,  and 
won  a  decided  success.  His  most  recent  triumph 
is  the  oratorio  "  Paradise  Lost,"  a  setting  of  Mil- 
ton's words  which  was  suggested  to  him  by  Madame 
Rubinstein.  This  work,  like  many  of  his  others, 
blends  the  older  Italian  polyphony  with  the  rich 
instrumentation  of  modern  Germany.  Bossi  is  now 
busy  with  a  new  grand  opera,  which  he  is  writing 
for  the  Milan  exposition. 

It  is  not  improbable  that  the  romantic  school  re- 


ITALY  179 

suiting  from  "  Hansel  and  Gretel "  will  cause  the 
Italians  themselves  to  cease  worshipping  the  coarse 
crudities  of  the  "  Verismo  "  style.  Certainly  many 
young  composers  are  now  following  the  lead  of 
Pirani  and  Bossi,  and  producing  works  in  a  far 
more  healthy  and  cleanly  vein  than  those  of  the 
later  realists.  Two  men  are  especially  prominent  in 
this  new  movement  —  Buongiorno  and  Wolf- 
Ferrari. 

The  first  of  these,  Buongiorno,  was  born  at 
Bonito,  near  Naples,  in  1864.  He  studied  at  the 
Naples  conservatory,  and  produced  the  two-act 
tragedy  "  Etelka."  After  graduating,  he  became 
member  of  an  operetta  company,  for  which  he  wrote 
about  a  dozen  works.  Some  of  these,  such  as  "  La 
Festa  del  Carro,"  have  become  very  popular.  At 
a  later  date  he  made  Dresden  his  home,  and  devoted 
himself  to  more  ambitious  works. 

His  first  success,  "Das  Madchenherz  "  (II  Cuor 
delle  Fanciulli),  tells  the  life-story  of  Alba  and 
Marino,  who  lived  in  a  little  village  during  the 
eighteenth  century.  Marino  grows  to  love  Alba, 
but  she  is  coy,  and  in  the  prospect  of  becoming 
court  singer  she  allows  ambition  to  make  her  for- 
getful of  love.  In  a  play  given  at  the  court,  Marino 
aids  her  to  win  the  position,  in  spite  of  the  efforts 
of  the  older  singer  to  hold  it.  But  the  ducal 


ISO  MODERN  COMPOSERS  OF  EUROPE 

favour  afterward  grows  cold,  and  Alba,  outshone 
by  a  younger  rival,  passes  into  obscurity  and  sick- 
ness, where  she  is  consoled  in  her  last  extremity 
by  Marino,  now  a  priest.  The  libretto,  by  Illica, 
displays  a  tender  vein  of  sentiment  that  is  hard 
to  portray  in  a  brief  mention  of  the  work,  and 
the  composer  has  set  it  to  music  of  decided  emotional 
beauty.  The  delightful  arrangement  of  the  play 
within  the  play,  called  "  Des  Paris  Urtheil,"  allows 
the  composer  to  revert  to  the  older  styles,  and  he 
imitates  Gluck,  Handel,  Bach,  and  others  with  ex- 
quisite humour. 

Buongiorno  has  also  essayed  the  one-act  form, 
but  with  infinitely  more  delicacy  than  the  realists. 
In  "  Michelangelo  and  Rolla  "  we  see  the  studio 
of  the  young  sculptor  Rolla,  who  has  unconsciously 
put  the  face  of  his  beloved,  Eleonora,  on  a  statue 
made  for  a  prize  competition.  He  will  not  exhibit 
it,  lest  she  be  thought  to  have  sat  as  a  model,  where- 
upon Michelangelo,  having  already  awarded  it  the 
prize,  causes  the  duke  to  send  for  it.  But  Rolla, 
seeing  in  the  messenger  merely  a  rival  for  Eleonora's 
hand,  smashes  the  statue  as  a  last  resort.  Then 
Michelangelo  leads  in  Eleonora  herself,  and  the 
people  come  to  acclaim  the  victor,  but  Rolla's  spirit  is 
broken  by  the  loss  of  his  masterpiece,  and,  as  all 


ITALY  1 8l 

kneel  at  the  sound  of  the  angelus,  he  sinks  in 
death. 

Ermanno  Wolf-Ferrari  is  the  son  of  a  German 
father  and  an  Italian  mother,  and  his  Teutonic 
tastes  are  doubtless  a  matter  of  inheritance.  His 
"  Cenerentola,"  produced  early  in  1902  at  Bremen, 
belongs  to  the  romantic  school  of  modern  Germany, 
though  its  fairy  subject  has  been  a  favourite  at  all 
times.  After  a  long  and  rather  discordant  first  act, 
this  work  shows  all  the  appealing  beauty  and  sym- 
pathetic feeling  that  go  to  make  the  new  roman- 
ticism so  dear  to  the  popular  heart.  "  Le  Donne 
Curiose,"  given  at  Munich  in  1903,  is  a  bright 
comedy,  describing  a  retreat  founded  by  the  men 
of  a  certain  village,  where  they  may  enjoy  a  quiet 
hour  without  female  interference.  The  women 
naturally  grow  curious,  and  at  length  penetrate  the 
mysterious  casino,  but,  after  they  find  that  it  is 
wholly  harmless,  they  are  discovered  and  roundly 
scolded  for  their  temerity.  A  work  in  another  vein 
is  the  composer's  "Vita  Nuova,"  a  fresh  and  inspired 
setting  of  some  sonnets  and  other  selections  from 
Dante's  great  work. 

The  music  of  the  other  nations  of  Southern 
Europe  is  of  little  importance  at  present.  Some 
years  ago  Spiro  Samara,  a  Greek,  witnessed  the 
success  of  his  opera,  "  Flora  Mirabilis " ;  but  at 


1 82  MODERN  COMPOSERS  OF  EUROPE 

present  he  devotes  himself  to  choral  conducting  in 
Athens,  leaving  operatic  fame  to  Theophilus  Sakel- 
larines.  Spain  has  her  peculiarly  national  form  of 
entertainment,  the  so-called  Zarzuela,  and  it  serves 
to  attract  many  audiences.  Among  her  composers 
are  numbered  Larrocha,  who  has  written  the  three- 
act  opera  "Marcel  Durand";  Antonio  Noguerra, 
whose  "  Sesta  "  and  symphonic  poem  "  Ivernenca  " 
show  much  inspiration  and  richness  of  colouring; 
Amandeo  Vives,  whose  "  Artus "  has  won  much 
favour,  and  J.  Albeniz,  whose  "  Pepita  Ximenes  " 
is  a  delightful  comedy  of  love  and  intrigue.  De 
Lara  produced  his  "  Messaline  "  in  England,  with 
good  results.  But  the  most  prominent  Spanish 
composer  seems  to  be  Felipe  Pedrell,  of  Madrid, 
who  is  well  known  also  through  his  correspondence 
with  various  foreign  journals.  His  recent  trilogy, 
dealing  with  the  national  motto,  "  Patria,  Fides, 
Amor,"  is  certainly  an  ambitious  work,  and  bids 
fair  to  be  remarkably  successful. 

Italy,  however,  is  far  more  advanced  in  music 
than  either  of  her  sister  peninsulas.  Her  history 
for  the  last  forty  years  shows  a  constant  advance, 
both  in  native  productions  and  in  the  appreciation 
of  foreign  works.  It  is  hard  for  one  nation  to 
speak  in  the  musical  language  of  another,  and  no 
one  expects  or  hopes  that  Italy  will  become  merely 


ITALY  183 

a  follower  of  Germany.  But  she  has  been  compelled 
to  put  herself  abreast  of  the  times,  and  with  such 
men  as  Puccini  and  Franchetti  in  opera,  Perosi  in 
a  fairly  worthy  style  of  sacred  music,  and  Bossi, 
Buongiorno,  and  Wolf-Ferrari  heading  the  younger 
enthusiasts,  much  may  be  hoped  from  her  in  the 
next  few  years. 


CHAPTER   VIII. 

THE   NETHERLANDS 

THE  present  seems  to  be  a  period  of  nationalism 
in  music.  The  new  French  school,  the  Italian  opera 
composers,  the  Bohemian  masters  are  but  a  type 
of  this  form  of  patriotism,  and  find  their  counter- 
part in  the  young  Scandinavians  and  the  modern 
Russians.  The  Slav  motto,  "  Para  Domoi  "  (Let 
Us  Go  Home),  has  been  applied  to  music  in  all 
countries,  and  we  even  see  learned  writers  and  ac- 
complished composers  trying  to  prove  the  exist- 
ence of  a  distinctively  American  school. 

The  glories  of  the  old  Flemish  days  are  past,  but 
enthusiastic  efforts  have  been  made  to  found  a  new 
Belgian  school,  and  there  is  now  a  long  list  of  native 
composers.  At  the  head  of  them,  for  many  years, 
stood  Pierre  Leonard  Leopold  Benoit,  or  Peter 
Benoit,  as  he  preferred  to  be  called.  He  was  born 
at  Harlebeke,  in  the  western  part  of  Flanders,  on 
August  17,  1834.  His  great  love  of  music  caused 
his  father  to  give  him  lessons,  and  resulted  in  some 

184 


THE  NETHERLANDS  185 

juvenile  efforts  at  composition.  When  he  reached 
the  age  of  seventeen  he  received  more  solid  in- 
struction, for  he  was  sent  to  the  Brussels  con- 
servatory, where  he  soon  became  a  favourite  of 
the  great  teacher  Fetis.  He  studied  piano,  harmony, 
and  composition,  gaining  several  prizes  for  counter- 
point and  fugue. 

On  graduating,  he  competed  for  the  composition 
prize  offered  by  the  government,  but  received  only 
honourable  mention.  A  year  later  he  wrote  the 
music  for  many  melodramas  at  the  Pare  Theatre, 
and  we  find  him  conducting  there  also.  There  he 
brought  out  his  attractive  opera  "  Het  Dorp  in  t' 
Gebergte  "  (The  Village  in  the  Mountains),  a  work 
showing  a  delightful  local  colour.  In  1857  he  tried 
again  in  competition,  with  the  cantata  "  Le  Meurtre 
d'Abel,"  this  time  gaining  the  first  prize.  As  a 
pensioner  of  the  government,  he  travelled  in  Ger- 
many, studying  in  Leipzig,  Dresden,  and  other 
artistic  centres.  At  Berlin  he  wrote  an  "  Ave 
Maria  "  for  eight  soloists  and  double  chorus,  which 
was  performed  in  the  cathedral.  During  this  period 
he  also  published  six  songs,  twelve  "  Pensees 
Na'ives  "  for  voice,  twelve  motets,  and  a  number  of 
piano  pieces.  He  sent  home  a  "  Petite  Cantate  de 
Noel,"  and  on  his  return  produced  his  "  Messe 
Solennelle."  In  1861  he  went  to  Paris,  in  hope 


1 86  MODERN  COMPOSERS  OF  EUROPE 

of  seeing  a  performance  of  his  new  opera,  "  Le 
Roi  des  Aulnes."  It  was  accepted  at  the  Theatre 
Lyrique,  but  never  given,  and  Benoit  filled  in  his 
period  of  waiting  by  conducting  at  the  Bouffes- 
Parisiens. 

On  his  return  to  Brussels  he  became  firmly  de- 
voted to  the  cause  of  Belgian  music,  and  worked 
industriously  at  composition.  In  a  few  years  he 
was  appointed  director  of  the  Flemish  School  of 
Music  at  Antwerp,  a  position  that  gave  him  many 
opportunities  to  influence  rising  composers  and  de- 
velop their  musical  patriotism.  One  of  his  many 
pupils  has  become  famous  through  an  American 
career;  for  Frank  Van  der  Stucken,  so  well  known 
in  Cincinnati  and  elsewhere  as  orchestral  leader  and 
composer,  studied  for  some  time  with  Benoit. 

Among  the  important  works  of  Benoit  are  a 
sacred  "  Quadrilogie,"  a  piano  concerto,  the  choral 
symphony  "  De  Maaiers "  (The  Reapers),  and 
many  lesser  works  for  voice  and  piano.  A  more 
ambitious  work  is  his  second  opera,  "  Isa,"  and  the 
incidental  music  to  the  dramas  "  Charlotte  Corday," 
"Willem  de  Zwijger,"  and  "  Het  Melief."  But 
the  especial  field  in  which  Benoit  excelled  was  the 
oratorio-cantata.  His  compositions  in  this  line  form 
a  list  of  ample  proportions,  and  show  the  composer 
at  his  best.  One  of  the  greatest  of  these  is 


THE  NETHERLANDS  1 8? 

"Oorlog"  (War),  while  other  striking  works  are 
"  Lucifer,"  "  De  Schelde,"  "  De  Rhyn,"  the  Rubens 
cantata,  and  "  Promethee."  A  Van  Dyck  cantata 
was  also  planned,  but  not  finished  before  the  com- 
poser's death  in  1901. 

All  of  Benoit's  larger  works  indicate  a  great 
power  of  conception,  real  inspiration,  ripe  technical 
knowledge,  and  much  skill  in  the  handling  of  great 
masses  of  tone.  His  oratorios  are  not  modelled  on 
the  religious  forms  of  Bach  or  Handel,  but  are 
thoroughly  modern  and  dramatic  in  effect.  They 
are  great  decorative  pictures  in  tone,  suggesting 
vistas  of  grand  palaces,  armies  in  battle  array,  rich 
fields  of  grain,  mystic  visions  of  the  spirit  world, 
or  gorgeous  triumphal  marches. 

Benoit  himself  was  a  familiar  figure  in  Antwerp. 
His  square  shoulders,  massive  head,  and  flowing 
locks  gave  an  impressive  effect  to  his  presence,  and 
his  intelligence  and  enthusiasm  made  him  always 
the  leader  among  friends  and  associates.  He  lived 
to  see  his  work  bear  fruit  in  the  compositions  of 
others,  as  well  as  in  his  own  creations. 

Paul  Gilson  was  born  at  Brussels  on  June  15, 
1865.  He  studied  by  himself  for  some  time,  but 
passed  three  years  at  the  Brussels  conservatory, 
graduating  in  1889.  In  that  year  he  obtained  the 
Prix  de  Rome,  with  his  cantata  "  Sinai."  Since  that 


1 88  MODERN  COMPOSERS  OF  EUROPE 

event  he  has  been  active  in  nearly  all  the  large 
forms.  He  has  produced  about  fifty  songs,  some 
with  orchestral  accompaniment,  and  a  score  of 
pieces  for  violin  and  for  'cello.  For  orchestra  he 
has  produced  a  Dramatic  Overture,  a  Festival  Over- 
ture, a  Fantasie  on  the  melodies  of  Canada,  another 
on  those  of  Ireland,  half  a  dozen  suites,  the  sym- 
phonic sketches  entitled  "  La  Mer,"  the  "  Bucolics," 
after  Virgil,  three  scherzi,  a  festival  march,  a  fan- 
fare march,  and  many  shorter  pieces.  His  choral 
works  include  an  Inaugural  Cantata,  a  cantata  for 
the  fiftieth  anniversary  of  the  Belgian  telegraph, 
the  oratorio  "  Moses,"  the  dramatic  oratorio 
"  Francesca  da  Rimini,"  and  several  sets  of  a 
capella  works.  He  has  also  made  some  interesting 
excursions  into  the  field  of  declamation  with  or- 
chestra, such  as  "  Le  Feu  du  Ciel "  (Hugo), 
"Christine"  (Leconte  de  Lisle),  and  the  Japanese 
fable  "  Satsuki."  His  operas  include  "  Les  Pauvres 
Gens,"  "  Prinses  Zonnenschijn,"  "  Les  Aventu- 
riers,"  and  "  Le  Demon,"  as  well  as  incidental 
music  to  the  dramas  "  Alvar  "  and  "  Liefdeblaem." 
Of  these  many  works  the  one  best  known  in 
America  is  "  La  Mer,"  which  has  been  given  sev- 
eral times  in  symphony  concerts.  It  was  suggested 
by  a  poem  of  Ed.  Levis,  which  is  frequently  read 
before  the  performance.  The  first  movement  gives 


PAUL   GILSON. 


THE  NETHERLANDS  189 

an  excellent  picture  of  sunrise  at  sea,  with  all  the 
many-coloured  splendours  of  the  dawn.  Then  fol- 
lows some  rollicking  sailors'  music,  in  which  their 
lively  songs  and  dances  are  suggested  with  due 
animation.  The  third  movement  portrays  a  love- 
scene  between  the  sailor  and  his  sweetheart,  idyllic 
at  first,  but  ending  in  sadness  as  he  must  embark 
and  she  gives  way  to  fear  of  the  treacherous  ocean. 
The  finale  depicts  the  tempest,  and  the  sailors' 
choruses  are  introduced  in  mocking  irony  as  the 
ship  goes  down.  Through  it  all  runs  a  vein  of 
poetic  fancy,  exquisitely  suggesting  the  beauty  and 
mystery  of  the  sea. 

"  Francesca  da  Rimini "  is  another  powerful 
work.  It  opens  in  the  realm  of  shades,  where  the 
guilty  lovers  find  themselves  after  death.  They  are 
brought  before  the  judge  Minos,  and  Paolo  tells 
their  story.  The  demons  cry  for  vengeance  on  the 
couple,  and  Paolo  tries  to  save  Francesca,  but  they 
are  condemned.  The  next  scene  shows  them,  as 
pictured  by  Dante,  floating  about  on  the  whirlwinds 
in  the  second  circle  of  the  infernal  regions.  At 
last,  stung  by  anguish,  Francesca  calls  on  the  Lord 
for  aid.  The  demons  again  mock  her,  but  her  sup- 
plication becomes  more  and  more  touching,  until 
finally  the  angel  Gabriel  appears  to  announce  that 
her  trials  have  inspired  pity,  and  heaven  will  open 


IQO  MODERN  COMPOSERS   OF  EUROPE 

to  her.  She  insists  that  Paolo  shall  accompany  her, 
and  on  finding  this  impossible  she  chooses  to  re- 
main with  him.  The  work  displays  great  strength, 
a  strength  that  is  almost  excessive  at  first,  and  at 
times  too  much  in  evidence.  But  the  skill  in  or- 
chestration, the  variety  of  combinations,  and  the 
marvellous  invention  shown  in  the  harmonic  pro- 
gressions all  stamp  the  work  as  a  masterpiece. 

Guillaume  Lekeu  was  a  composer  whose  early 
death  cut  short  a  career  of  great  promise.  He  was 
born  at  Heusy,  in  Verviers,  January  20,  1870,  and 
his  first  musical  studies  were  pursued  in  the  local 
music-school.  At  the  age  of  twelve  he  went  with 
his  parents  to  Poitiers,  continuing  his  education  at 
the  Lyceum.  Four  years  later  he  went  to  Paris, 
where  he  came  under  the  elevating  influence  of 
Cesar  Franck.  His  earnest  work  with  that  master, 
in  harmony,  form,  and  composition,  soon  began 
to  bear  fruit,  and  in  1891  his  cantata  "  Andromede  " 
took  second  prize  in  the  Belgian  national  compe- 
tition. 

This  mild  success  was  received  with  great  en- 
thusiasm in  his  native  town,  where  he  was  called 
upon  to  lead  a  performance  of  the  work.  For  the 
three  remaining  years  of  his  life  he  was  steadily 
busy  at  composition.  His  fantasie  on  popular 
Angevin  airs  was  also  accorded  a  representation 


GUILLAUME    LEKEU. 


THE   NETHERLANDS  19 1 

in  his  birthplace.  Among  his  other  works  are 
two  fitudes  Symphoniques,  one  entitled  "  Chant 
Triomphale,"  and  the  other  divided  into  the  two 
parts,  "  Faust "  and  "  Hamlet."  There  is  also  an 
attractive  "  Poeme  "  for  violin  and  orchestra,  and 
an  exquisite  adagio  for  violin,  'cello,  and  strings. 
Lekeu  wrote  incidental  music  to  parts  of  De 
Musset's  "  Barberine "  and  Hugo's  "  Les  Bur- 
graves,"  but  no  actual  opera.  His  greatest  vocal 
work  is  the  "  Chant  Lyrique,"  for  chorus  and  or- 
chestra, but  some  of  his  songs  are  remarkable  for 
their  elevated  melodic  style.  In  the  lesser  instru- 
mental forms  there  is  an  "  Epithalame  "  for  quin- 
tette of  strings,  three  trombones,  and  organ ;  several 
smaller  chamber  works;  a  wonderfully  effective 
violin  sonata;  a  number  of  piano  pieces;  and  an 
unfinished  piano  quartette,  of  which  the  second 
movement  was  completed  by  D'Indy. 

Lekeu's  prose  writings,  like  his  music,  reveal  a 
deep  gloom,  a  pervading  spirit  of  melancholy.  The 
lofty  sadness  of  his  work  seems  at  times  a  perfect 
picture  of  lamentation,  suffering,  and  sorrow.  It 
would  almost  appear  that  he  had  a  premonition  of 
approaching  death,  and  the  typhoid  fever  that  car- 
ried him  off  on  January  21,  1894,  brought  a  tragic 
close  to  a  life  of  work  that  was  scarcely  begun. 
Lekeu  was  a  follower  of  the  new  French  school, 


192  MODERN  COMPOSERS  OF  EUROPE 

and  his  free  form,  his  efforts  at  harmonic  tone- 
painting,  and  refined  delicacy  in  colouring-  are  such 
as  we  expect  from  all  of  Franck's  pupils.  He  died 
before  he  had  reached  artistic  maturity,  and,  if  his 
music  shows  some  of  the  unsteady  qualities  of 
youth,  it  still  gives  evidence  of  profound  thought 
and  deep  feeling.  His  melodic  inspiration  and  his 
endless  fertility  of  invention  make  his  loss  all  the 
more  to  be  regretted,  for  his  expressive  power 
would  certainly  have  found  shape  in  many  great 
works. 

Edgar  Tinel  is  one  of  the  few  important  musical 
figures  in  Belgium  to-day.  He  was  born  March  27, 
1854,  at  Sinay,  in  East  Flanders,  where  his  father 
was  schoolmaster  and  organist.  In  early  childhood 
he  showed  intellectual  tendencies,  and  his  father 
arranged  his  education  with  the  utmost  care.  His 
first  training  was  received  in  connection  with  his 
father's  duties  at  the  organ.  Then  followed  a 
period  at  the  music-school  of  a  neighbouring  city, 
after  which  he  was  sent  to  Brussels,  where  Fetis 
received  him  with  kindly  enthusiasm.  His  work 
was  greatly  hampered  by  poverty,  and  some  of  the 
hours  for  practice  were  devoted  perforce  to  mend- 
ing and  making  his  own  clothes.  At  thirteen  he 
was  allowed  to  give  up  outside  studies,  and  devote 
himself  wholly  to  music,  whereupon  he  began  to 


EDGAR   TINEL. 


THE   NETHERLANDS  193 

earn  a  part  of  his  expenses  by  piano  teaching  and 
choir  -singing.  In  1872  and  1873  he  took  prizes 
for  his  piano  playing,  but  a  trip  to  Germany,  where 
he  made  the  acquaintance  of  Raff,  decided  him  to 
devote  himself  wholly  to  composition. 

The  death  of  his  father  brought  further  cares 
upon  him,  and  the  Belgian  Prix  de  Rome,  won  in 
1877  by  his  cantata  "  Klokke  Roland,"  was  wel- 
come for  the  cash  it  brought  as  well  as  for  the 
honour.  This  work  is  the  song  of  the  great  bell 
of  Ghent,  which  gave  warning  of  war  and  fire,  but 
also  celebrated  the  triumphs  of  Flanders.  The  re- 
sulting study  in  Germany,  France,  and  Italy  caused 
him  to  become  an  enthusiast  for  the  reform  of 
sacred  music,  and  he  even  advocated  a  return  to 
the  "  Plain  Chant."  His  book  on  the  Gregorian 
modes  contains  many  sound  ideas,  including  the 
Wagnerian  doctrine  of  proper  union  of  words  and 
music.  It  aroused  much  attention,  and  brought 
him  the  position  of  director  of  the  Sacred  Music 
School  at  Malines. 

Overwork  resulted  in  disease,  and  two  operations 
became  necessary.  A  third  was  suggested,  but 
Tinel  insisted  on  finishing  his  "  Franciscus  "  first, 
and  the  enthusiasm  of  composition  caused  a  cure. 
This  work  brought  him  fame  as  well  as  health. 
The  city  of  Malines  produced  it  no  less  than  four- 


194  MODERN  COMPOSERS   OF  EUROPE 

teen  times,  Brussels  also  insisted  on  hearing  it,  and 
it  made  the  rounds  of  Germany.  "  Franciscus  " 
is  the  story  of  St.  Francis  of  Assisi,  the  founder  of 
the  Franciscan  friars.  It  is  in  three  parts.  At  first 
we  are  shown  the  worldly  life  of  the  young  Italian, 
and  the  gaiety  of  the  court  of  Assisi.  After  the 
feast  is  over,  he  wanders  through  pastoral  lanes  in 
the  quiet  of  a  moonlit  night,  and  hears  a  voice  from 
heaven  which  causes  him  to  renounce  the  world 
and  its  possessions.  The  second  part  shows  him 
as  a  monk,  joined  by  some  of  his  former  comrades. 
There  are  choruses  of  spirits,  and  he  sings  the 
hymn  to  poverty  that  is  almost  a  literal  translation 
of  the  poem  attributed  to  him.  The  third  part 
presents  his  death  and  apotheosis.  The  music  is 
varied  in  style,  at  times  contrapuntal,  at  times  gor- 
geous in  orchestration. 

The  school  of  sacred  drama  is  practically  oratorio 
on  words  other  than  the  biblical  text.  In  its  earliest 
form  oratorio  dealt  with  legendary  subjects,  but 
it  soon  received  the  stricter  limitation  that  found 
its  culmination  in  the  works  of  Handel.  In  modern 
days,  the  "  St.  Elizabeth,"  of  Liszt,  and  Rubinstein's 
"  Moses  "  and  "  Christus  "  have  created  the  freer 
style  followed  by  Tinel.  His  "  Sainte  Godelive  " 
is  another  work  in  this  school.  It  contains  many 
beauties,  but  is  not  so  great  as  "  Franciscus."  Its 


THE   NETHERLANDS  195 

text,  which  is  rather  weak,  tells  of  the  martyr 
Godelive,  who  was  maltreated  by  her  husband,  and 
finally  killed,  because  she  preferred  the  love  of 
Christ  to  his  devotion. 

Among  Tinel's  other  works  are  three  orchestral 
pieces  for  Corneille's  "  Polyeucte,"  "  De  Drie  Rid- 
ders,"  and  "  Kollebloemen,"  for  solo,  chorus,  and 
orchestra,  many  songs  and  piano  pieces,  and  a  great 
deal  of  sacred  music,  including  the  mass  for  the 
Holy  Virgin  of  Lourdes.  Tinel  is  a  married  man, 
and  has  five  children.  His  first  meeting  with  his 
wife  came  about  through  his  reading  of  her  poems, 
which  he  set  to  music.  He  has  been  for  many  years 
inspector  of  the  state  music  schools,  and  is  now 
professor  of  counterpoint  and  fugue  in  the  Brussels 
conservatory. 

Jan  Blockx  has  won  his  chief  renown  in  opera, 
though  not  inactive  in  other  forms.  Born  at  Ant- 
werp January  25,  1851,  his  father,  an  upholsterer, 
died  six  years  later,  and  Jan  was  set  to  learn  the 
trade.  Receiving  an  accidental  fall  one  day,  he 
went  to  the  piano  and  played,  in  order  to  prove 
that  he  was  not  seriously  hurt.  His  employers  saw 
that  he  showed  talent,  and  caused  him  to  begin  a 
musical  career.  His  studies  were  pursued  at  Ant- 
werp and  Brussels,  and  later  in  Leipzig. 

In  1877  he  began  to  come  before  the  public.   His 


196  MODERN  COMPOSERS  OF  EUROPE 

one-act  opera,  "  lels  Vergeten,"  was  produced,  and 
he  won  a  prize  over  twenty-one  others  with  his 
"  Ons  Vaterland,"  a  cantata  for  the  Rubens  fes- 
tival. Three  years  later  came  the  orchestral  piece 
"  Kermisdag,"  which  won  some  success.  His  in- 
strumental compositions  include  an  "  Inauguration 
March,"  and  the  "  Triptique  Orchestrate,"  consist- 
ing of  the  "  Jour  des  Morts,"  "  Noel,"  and 
"Paques."  "Op  den  Spoom  "  and  the  "  Vrede- 
sang "  are  works  for  soloists  and  double  chorus, 
with  orchestra,  while  "  De  Klokke  Roland,"  with 
mixed  chorus  and  children's  voices,  is  full  of  dra- 
matic effects. 

The  ballet  "  Milenka,"  an  animated  work,  was 
followed  by  the  four-act  opera-comique  "  Maitre 
Martin."  But  a  much  greater  success  was  scored 
by  the  "  Herbergsprinses,"  produced  at  Antwerp 
in  1896.  This  treats  of  life  at  Brussels  under  the 
Austrian  rule.  Merlyn,  a  young  poet-composer,  is 
loved  by  Reinilde,  who  has  been  adopted  by  his 
mother  Katelyne.  His  false  friend  Marcus  also 
loves  Reinilde,  and  on  being  refused  plans  to  ruin 
Merlyn.  This  he  does  by  means  of  the  fascinating 
Rita,  an  innkeeper's  daughter,  who  charms  Merlyn 
in  spite  of  his  efforts  to  forget  her.  But  her  dis- 
carded love,  the  blacksmith  Rabo,  threatens  his  new 
rival,  and  kills  him  in  a  quarrel,  just  as  Katelyne 


THE  NETHERLANDS  1 97 

and  Reinilde  come  to  announce  his  success  in  win- 
ning a  musical  prize.  The  frenzied  Reinilde  is 
moved  to  kill  Rita,  but  decides  that  a  life  of  re- 
morse will  be  a  greater  punishment  for  her.  The 
music,  in  spite  of  its  polyphonic  character,  is  de- 
lightfully fresh,  and  aroused  immense  enthusiasm 
for  twenty-eight  successive  performances  when  first 
brought  out. 

"  Thyl  Uylenspiegel,"  in  the  opera  of  Blockx 
(Brussels,  1900),  is  not  the  rogue  of  Richard 
Strauss  nor  the  rascal  of  Reznicek,  but  a  popular 
leader  who  arouses  the  peasants  against  Spanish 
misrule.  In  the  first  act  he  departs  gaily  with  his 
mandolin,  but  returns  later  to  find  that  his  father 
has  been  burned  alive  on  the  public  square.  He 
is  eager  for  revenge,  and  is  aided  by  his  fiancee 
Nelle.  In  the  second  act,  Thyl  and  Nelle,  with 
their  friend  Lamme,  travel  about  and  incite  the 
people  to  revolt.  In  the  forest  they  capture  the 
enemy's  messenger.  The  third  act  introduces  a 
mock  wedding-procession,  by  which  the  conspir- 
ators gain  an  entrance  to  Maestricht.  This  is 
being  besieged  by  the  Spaniards,  but  is  now  suc- 
cessfully relieved  by  Thyl.  The  work  ends  with  a 
series  of  triumphal  choruses. 

Of  Blockx's  later  works,  "  Die  Capel  "  did  not 
fulfil  expectations,  but  "  La  Fiancee  de  la  Mer " 


198  MODERN  COMPOSERS  OF  EUROPE 

(1903)  is  proving  a  popular  novelty.  Blockx  has 
been  active  in  teaching,  and  for  many  years  was  in 
charge  of  the  harmony  classes  at  the  Flemish 
music-school.  In  1901  he  succeeded  Benoit  at  the 
Antwerp  conservatory. 

Among  other  well-known  followers  of  Benoit  in 
the  national  movement,  Lenaerts,  leader  of  the 
Flemish  theatre  at  Antwerp  in  his  nineteenth  year, 
has  produced  an  excellent  cantata,  "  The  Triumph 
of  Light."  Keurvels,  orchestral  director  at  the  same 
theatre,  has  produced  the  operas  "  Paris,"  "  Rolla," 
"  Hamlet,"  and  others  in  lighter  vein,  as  well  as 
a  Mass  and  some  melodious  ballads.  Wambach, 
the  violinist,  is  responsible  for  the  drama  "  Nathans 
Parabel,"  the  symphonic  poem  "  Aan  de  Boorden 
van  de  Schelde,"  two  oratorios,  and  many  lesser 
works.  Mortelmans  is  credited  with  the  cantata 
"  Sinai,"  the  symphony  "  Germania,"  and  the  more 
recent  "  Homeric  "  symphony,  the  symphonic  poems 
"  Aspiration "  and  "  Helios,"  and  the  cantata 
"  Lady  Macbeth."  Vleeshouwer,  a  pupil  of  Blockx, 
has  composed  the  operas  "  ficole  des  Peres  "  and 
"  Zrinyi,"  also  the  fantasie  "  Der  Wilde  Jager." 

Van  Den  Eeden,  at  Mons,  has  produced  the  prize 
cantata  "  Faust's  Last  Night,"  the  opera  "  Nu- 
mance,"  and  several  oratorios.  Van  Duyse,  son 
of  the  poet  of  that  name,  has  written  the  prize 


THE  NETHERLANDS  199 

cantata  "  Tassos  Dood,"  and  seven  operas,  fimile 
Mathieu,  head  of  the  Ghent  conservatory,  has  com- 
posed much  incidental  music.  Waelput  is  respon- 
sible for  four  symphonies,  numerous  cantatas,  and 
the  lyric  drama  "  Stella."  Huberti  has  devoted 
himself  to  secular  oratorios,  while  Mestdagh,  ex- 
cept for  two  overtures,  has  also  confined  himself 
to  the  choral  field.  Raway's  sacred  drama  "  Neon  " 
and  the  two-night  lyric  drama  "  Freya  "  are  am- 
bitious works,  while  his  symphonic  poems  are  also 
well  spoken  of.  Sylvain  Dupuis,  professor  of  coun- 
terpoint at  the  Liege  conservatory,  has  produced 
the  symphonic  poem  "  Macbeth,"  and  the  operas 
"  Cour  d'Ognon  "  and  "  Moina."  Juliette  Folville, 
famous  among  women  as  pianist  and  violinist, 
has  composed  the  opera  "  Atala,"  a  march,  parts  of 
a  symphony,  a  violin  sonata,  and  many  songs. 
Ysaye  and  Marsick,  both  renowned  as  violinists, 
have  produced  several  concertos  for  their  instru- 
ment. 

Richard  Hoi  was  for  many  years  the  Nestor  of 
the  Dutch  composers.  His  fame  was  assured  by 
the  patriotic  hymn,  "  Comme  je  t'aime,  O  mon 
pays,"  and  his  long  life  of  usefulness  was  of  excel- 
lent service  to  the  cause  of  music  in  Holland.  Born 
at  Amsterdam  on  July  23,  1825,  he  studied  first 
at  the  Royal  School,  and  later  in  Germany.  He 


2OO  MODERN  COMPOSERS   OF  EUROPE 

became  piano  teacher  on  his  return,  but  did  more 
important  work  in  musical  reform  as  leader  of 
choral  and  symphony  concerts.  Among  his  hundred 
and  fifty  published  works  are  the  sacred  opera 
"  David,"  the  cantatas  "  Floris "  and  "  Le  Hol- 
landais  Volant,"  four  symphonies,  and  several 
masses,  to  say  nothing  of  lesser  compositions  for 
voice,  piano,  or  chamber  performance.  Hoi  was  for 
many  years  critic  of  the  Cecilia,  and  afterward  editor 
of  the  Messager  Musical.  His  long  and  active  career 
reached  its  close  with  his  death  on  May  14,  1904. 

Julius  Rontgen  was  born  of  Dutch  parents  at 
Leipzig,  May  9,  1855.  His  studies  brought  him 
under  Reinecke  and  Lachner,  and  made  him  a 
pianist  as  well  as  composer.  In  1877  he  came  to 
Amsterdam,  where  he  made  his  home.  Here  his 
activity  took  the  form  of  teaching  in  the  Amster- 
dam music-school,  and  he  afterward  aided  in  found- 
ing the  conservatory.  His  compositions  include  a 
piano  concerto,  an  operetta,  "  Toscani  Rispetti," 
"  Das  Gebet,"  for  chorus  and  orchestra,  and  other 
lesser  works. 

Amsterdam  has  become  the  musical  centre  of 
Holland,  and  its  festivals  afford  a  chance  for  the 
production  of  the  best  native  works.  Among  the 
Dutch  composers  thus  heard  is  Van  t'  Kruys,  who 
has  to  his  credit  no  less  than  eight  overtures  and 


THE  NETHERLANDS  ,        2OI 

five  symphonies,  to  say  nothing  of  the  opera  "  De 
Bloem  van  Island."  Smulders,  of  the  Liege  con- 
servatory, has  written  the  symphonic  poem  "  Adieu, 
Absence  et  Retour,"  and  other  lesser  works.  Cor- 
nelius Brandt-Buys  and  his  three  sons  have  pro- 
duced much  organ  and  choral  work.  Hendriks  is 
another  prominent  organist,  while  Averkamp,  as 
director  of  a  singing  society,  is  also  prominent  in 
the  vocal  field.  Gottfried  Mann  has  seen  the  per- 
formance of  his  charming  opera  "  Melaenis,"  while 
Van  Milligen  has  written  "  Brinio "  and  "  Dar- 
thula."  Among  the  latest  Dutch  operas  are  "  The 
Eagle's  Nest,"  by  Julius  Schey,  leader  of  the  Am- 
sterdam opera,  "  The  Doge  of  Venice,"  by  John 
Wagenaar ;  and  "  Kerstboom,"  by  Grellinger. 
Dirk  Schaefer's  piano  concerto  has  created  a  good 
impression,  and  two  movements  of  a  symphony  by 
De  Haans  have  been  well  received.  The  best  of  the 
younger  men,  however,  are  Bernard  Zweers  arid 
Alphonse  Diepenbrock.  Holland  has  also  its  quota 
of  women  composers.  The  children's  songs  of 
Catherine  van  Rennes  and  Hendrika  van  Tussen- 
broek  are  of  unusual  excellence,  while  the  works 
of  Cornelia  van  Oosterzee,  if  somewhat  overswollen 
in  effect,  show  a  mastery  of  larger  forms.  Cora 
Dopper  has  entered  the  field  of  opera,  and  her  "  Rat- 


2O2  MODERN  COMPOSERS  OF  EUROPE 

cleft "  is  soon  to  be  produced.  All  these  names 
show  that  the  national  movement  in  Holland,  if 
not' yet  of  the  same  dimensions  as  that  in  Belgium, 
is  still  beginning  to  bear  fruit. 


CHAPTER   IX. 

ENGLAND 

THE  two  countries  that  have  seemed  most  lack- 
ing in  a  distinctively  national  school  of  music  are 
England  and  the  United  States.  There  have  been 
many  efforts  in  both  lands  to  remedy  this  condition, 
but  the  result  has  been  almost  wholly  an  imita- 
tion of  classical  models,  without  any  special  local 
colour  or  peculiar  style.  Great  cities,  ship  canals, 
and  manufacturing  districts  do  not  usually  cause 
a  new  school  of  folk-music  to  arise,  and  without 
this  there  can  be  no  really  national  school.  It  is 
now  many  centuries  since  the  gleemen  flourished 
in  England,  and  the  musical  glories  of  the  Eliza- 
bethan period  and  of  Purcell's  time  have  scarcely 
been  equalled  by  later  composers. 

At  present,  however,  England  can  certainly  boast 
of  one  modern  genius,  in  the  person  of  Edward 
William  Elgar.  He  was  born  at  Broadheath,  near 
Worcester,  on  June  2,  1857.  His  father  was  or- 
ganist of  the  Catholic  church  in  Worcester,  and 


2O4  MODERN  COMPOSERS  OF  EUROPE 

the  boy  used  to  delight  in  sitting  in  the  organ-loft 
during  the  services.  After  a  time  he  became  bold 
enough  to  touch  the  keys  himself,  though  at  first 
he  could  produce  nothing  but  noise.  Gradually  he 
began  to  master  the  instrument,  and  at  a  later  period 
he  replaced  his  father.  When  very  small  he  had 
a  few  lessons  on  the  piano,  and  afterward  he  was 
taken  into  the  orchestra  of  the  Worcester  theatre, 
where  an  English  opera  company  gave  works  like 
"Norma,"  "  Trovatore,"  and  "Don  Giovanni." 
His  general  education  was  received  at  Littleton 
House  School,  where  he  earned  a  mock  title  among 
the  boys;  for,  on  being  asked  his  name  by  the 
principal,  he  responded  "  Edward  Elgar,"  and  when 
the  punctilious  master  said,  "  Add  the  '  sir,'  "  he 
replied,  "  Sir  Edward  Elgar !  " 

He  hoped  to  study  music  in  Leipzig,  and  devoted 
himself  to  German  with  that  end  in  view;  but 
poverty  compelled  him  to  abandon  the  idea.  Then 
he  entered  the  office  of  a  legal  friend,  where  he  re- 
mained a  year  before  deciding  that  music  was  his 
vocation.  He  began  to  give  lessons  on  the  violin, 
and  studied  the  instrument  with  Pollitzer  in  Lon- 
don. It  was  at  this  time  that  he  determined  to 
educate  himself  in  composition.  He  read,  heard,  and 
played  everything  that  he  could.  His  church  service 


EDWARD    WILLIAM    ELGAR. 


ENGLAND  205 

finishing  early,  he  would  run  over  to  the  cathedral 
to  hear  the  voluntaries  there. 

He  studied  books  on  harmony  and  orchestration, 
but  he  speaks  of  them  as  unattractive.  "  I  read 
them,  and  I  still  exist,"  is  his  way  of  putting  it. 
They  included  the  works  of  Catel,  Cherubini,  and 
others,  but  the  only  one  of  which  he  approves  is 
Mozart's  "Thorough-Bass  School."  He  also 
speaks  highly  of  Parry's  articles  in  Grove's  dic- 
tionary. Asked  by  a  recent  interviewer  how  these 
authorities  agreed,  he  replied  that  they  did  not,  and 
that  a  man  who  studies  by  himself  must  be  wise 
enough  to  pick  out  the  good  points  of  each.  In 
alluding  to  his  studies  of  musical  form,  he  repeated 
the  important  truth  that  even  those  composers  who 
disregard  it  should  first  be  masters  of  it.  He  grew 
enthusiastic  about  Mozart.  As  an  example  of  his 
conscientious  study,  he  told  of.  ruling  a  score  for 
the  same  instruments  and  the  same  number  of  bars 
as  in  Mozart's  G-Minor  Symphony,  and  writing  a 
symphony  of  similar  shape  in  this  outline.  After 
thirty  years  he  refers  to  this  as  the  most  valuable 
of  all  his  studies. 

When  he  managed  to  get  hold  of  an  orchestral 
score,  he  would  stuff  his  pockets  with  bread  and 
cheese,  and  go  out  into  the  fields  to  study  it.  Even 
after  beginning  to  teach  he  continued  this  custom, 


2O6  MODERN  COMPOSERS  OF  EUROPE 

and  on  such  days  his  pupils  waited  for  him  in  vain. 
He  gained  much  experience  by  writing  for  a  wind 
quintette  to  which  he  belonged,  and  he  learned  much 
as  a  member  of  Stockley's  orchestra  in  Birming- 
ham. It  was  the  latter  organization  that  brought 
out  some  of  his  earlier  works.  London,  however, 
treated  him  with  less  warmth  at  first.  The  direct- 
ors of  the  Co  vent  Garden  promenade  concerts 
called  him  to  the  city  to  direct  a  rehearsal  of  his 
music,  but  Sir  Arthur  Sullivan  arrived  unexpectedly, 
and  the  time  was  given  to  an  excerpt  from  that 
master's  new  opera.  Sullivan  met  Elgar  long  after- 
ward, and  expressed  the  heartiest  sorrow  on  learn- 
ing of  the  incident ;  for  Sullivan  was  always  warm- 
hearted, and  would  surely  have  insisted  on  hearing 
Elgar's  new  work. 

His  cantata,  "  The  Black  Knight,"  when  pro- 
duced at  a  Worcester  festival,  drew  attention  to  his 
gifts.  His  music  was  in  request  for  other  festivals, 
and  he  completed  "  The  Light  of  Life  "  and  "  King 
Olaf  "  to  satisfy  this  demand.  Both  are  works  of 
real  beauty,  and  "  King  Olaf "  especially  displays 
a  strength  of  treatment  that  marks  the  maturing 
genius.  The  theme  is  handled  dramatically  and 
directly,  without  any  attempt  at  the  refined  musical 
mysticism  that  sometimes  appears  in  later  works. 
There  is  already  an  astonishing  mastery  of  orches- 


ENGLAND  2QJ 

tral  technique,  and  the  score  is  full  of  warm,  sym- 
pathetic colouring.  An  original  vein  of  melody  is 
in  evidence,  and  gives  the  work  a  frank  beauty  that 
would  be  less  noticeable  in  a  more  involved  style. 

In  1899  London  was  formally  introduced  to 
Elgar's  works,  for  the  Variations  were  given  at  one 
of  the  Richter  concerts.  These  Variations,  says  the 
composer,  should  be  regarded  purely  as  a  piece  of 
music,  but  each  one  bears  the  initials  or  descrip- 
tion of  one  of  the  composer's  friends,  so  for  those 
in  the  secret  the  work  becomes  endowed  with  de- 
licious significance.  The  variations  are  attractive 
in  themselves,  and  excellently  arranged  for  effects 
of  contrast. 

In  1900  the  composer  attained  sudden  fame  by 
his  "  Dream  of  Gerontius."  This  sacred  work  is 
a  setting  of  Cardinal  Newman's  poem,  which  Elgar 
had  known  and  pondered  over  for  many  years. 
Elgar  has  divided  it  into  two  parts,  the  first  de- 
scribing the  approaching  death  of  Gerontius  and 
the  prayers  of  his  friends,  while  the  second  treats 
of  the  salvation  of  his  soul  and  its  reception  in 
the  celestial  regions.  Less  unified  than  the  won- 
derful "  Tod  und  Verklarung  "  of  Strauss,  it  still 
has  many  passages  of  compelling  beauty  and  sub- 
limity. First  given  at  Birmingham,  it  attracted  the 
attention  of  Julius  Buths,  who  translated  it  and 


2O8  MODERN  COMPOSERS  OF  EUROPE 

had  it  produced  twice  at  the  Lower  Rhine  Festival, 
in  Dusseldorf.  This  was  an  unusual  honour  for 
an  English  work,  but  the  criticisms  it  received  were 
even  more  flattering.  One  writer  called  it  the 
greatest  composition  of  the  last  hundred  years,  ex- 
cept the  Requiem  of  Brahms. 

Elgar's  most  ambitious  work  is  the  new  oratorio 
"  The  Apostles."  The  composer's  purpose  was  to 
express  in  tone  the  later  phases  in  the  life  of 
Jesus  and  his  comrades,  which  have  not  yet  been 
given  a  musical  setting.  The  work  is  planned  on 
a  grand  scale,  for  it  is  to  be  one  part  of  a  trilogy, 
the  second  taking  up  the  establishment  of  the  Church 
among  the  Gentiles,  while  the  third  will  depict  the 
end  of  the  world  and  the  day  of  judgment.  It  is 
a  question  if  this  will  be  carried  out,  however,  for 
the  first  part,  according  to  some  critics,  has  proven 
a  severe  strain  on  the  loyalty  of  Elgar's  friends. 
He  has  tried  to  build  a  great  work,  but  excess  of 
emphasis  on  the  psychological  side,  combined  with 
an  arbitrary  use  of  guiding  motives  and  other  de- 
vices, has  given  it  an  artificial  character,  in  spite 
of  its  many  excellences. 

Elgar  stands  to-day  as  a  great  and  original  genius, 
in  a  land  where  there  have  been  many  talented 
musicians,  but  almost  none  who  showed  real  in- 
spiration. Certainly  the  three  days'  festival  in 


ENGLAND  2OQ 

London,  devoted  wholly  to  his  music,  was  an  honour 
thoroughly  deserved.  "  Gerontius "  and  "  The 
Apostles  "  occupied  two  evenings,  while  the  third 
included  the  attractive  "  Froissart "  overture,  the 
Variations,  selections  from  the  early  cantata  "  Ca- 
ractacus,"  the  new  overture  "  In  the  South,"  the 
popular  "  Cockaigne "  overture  (inspired  by  the 
many  phases  of  London  itself),  the  broad  "  Pomp 
and  Circumstance  "  marches,  and  the  noble  vocal 
"  Sea  Pictures,"  set  to  the  words  of  Elizabeth  Bar- 
rett Browning. 

Elgar' s  other  compositions  include  the  exquisite 
incidental  music  to  "  Diarmid  and  Grania,"  the  early 
cantata  "  Scenes  from  the  Bavarian  Highlands," 
the  later  "  Banner  of  St.  George,"  "  Lux  Christi," 
and  a  T'e  Deum  in  the  sacred  field,  the  Imperial 
March,  Coronation  March,  and  three  smaller  orches- 
tral pieces,  a  Spanish  Serenade  for  chorus  and  or- 
chestra, and  many  lesser  works  for  voice,  piano, 
violin,  or  organ.  Besides  the  sequel  to  "  The  Apos- 
tles," Elgar  has  planned  four  new  marches  for  the 
"  Pomp  and  Circumstance  "  series,  which  will  make 
six  in  all.  One  of  the  new  works  will  be  a  soldiers' 
funeral  march.  He  has  also  sketched  a  violin  con- 
certo. 

In  person,  Elgar  is  strong,  active,  virile,  and 
enthusiastic.  He  is  a  lover  of  books,  and  early 


2IO  MODERN  COMPOSERS  OF  EUROPE 

access  to  a  large  collection  made  him  a  deep  student 
of  history.  His  greatest  delight,  however,  is  still 
found  out-of-doors,  and  the  boy  who  studied  scores 
in  the  fields  is  now  replaced  by  the  man  who  loves 
kite-flying,  golf,  and  bicycling. 

Another  original  figure  in  English  music  is 
Samuel  Coleridge-Taylor.  He  was  born  in  London, 
on  August  15,  1875.  He  is  a  mulatto,  his  mother 
being  English  while  his  father  was  a  full-blooded 
African.  The  latter,  however,  was  evidently  a  man 
of  education,  and  practised  as  a  physician  in  Sierra 
Leone.  At  the  age  of  six  the  child  began  to  study 
violin  with  Joseph  Beckwith,  at  the  Croydon  Con- 
servatory, and  the  instrument  has  remained  a  fa- 
vourite with  him.  At  ten  he  became  a  chorister, 
and  five  years  later  began  to  receive  instruction  at 
the  Royal  College  of  Music.  In  1893  ne  won  a 
scholarship,  and  for  four  years  studied  composition 
with  Stanford  and  piano  with  Algernon  Ashton. 

He  began  his  career  in  composition  with  a  num- 
ber of  anthems,  a  nonet  for  piano,  strings,  and 
wind,  and  a  symphony  in  A  minor,  which  was  per- 
formed at  London  and  Liverpool.  For  chamber 
music  he  produced  a  clarinet  quintette,  five  fantasias 
for  strings,  and  a  string  quartette.  For  his  be- 
loved violin  he  has  produced  the  passionate  "  South- 
ern Love-Songs  "  and  the  "  African  Romances,"  as 


SAMUEL    COLERIDGE  -  TAYLOR. 


ENGLAND  211 

well  as  the  Hiawatha  Sketches  that  foreshadowed 
his  later  triumphs.  These  are  three  characteristic 
pieces,  entitled  "  lagoo,"  "  Chibiabos,"  and  "  Pau- 
pukkeewis,"  and  giving  excellent  illustrations  of 
their  subject. 

In  1898  he  brought  out  the  cantata  "  Hiawatha's 
Wedding-Feast,"  and  from  that  time  has  become 
renowned  in  the  musical  world.  Under  the  formal 
structure  of  the  various  numbers  lies  a  barbaric 
strength,  a  profusion  of  passion,  that  sways  all 
hearers.  The  rich,  delicate  instrumentation  adds 
its  glowing  colour  to  the  warm,  lifelike  effect  of  the 
whole,  and  forms  a  most  appropriate  frame  for  the 
naive  freshness  of  Longfellow's  picture.  The 
crowning  glory  of  the  work  is  the  love-song  "  On- 
away,  awake,  beloved,"  which  forms  a  superbly 
beautiful  musical  gem. 

The  success  of  this  cantata  induced  the  composer 
to  proceed  along  the  same  line.  A  year  later  he 
produced  the  "  Hiawatha  "  overture,  and  a  second 
part  of  the  cantata,  "  The  Death  of  Minnehaha," 
while  in  1900  came  the  last  section  of  the  work, 
"  Hiawatha's  Departure."  According  to  Ernest 
Newman,  these  additions  are  less  successful  than  the 
original  cantata,  and  mark  a  retrogression  in  the 
composer's  style.  The  same  authority  regards 
"  The  Atonement  "  as  still  weaker,  and  the  "  Blind 


212  MODERN  COMPOSERS  OF  EUROPE 

Girl  of  Castel-Cuille,"  written  for  a  Leeds  festival, 
as  a  final  collapse.  The  composer's  other  works, 
an  orchestral  Ballade  with  violin,  an  Idyll,  a  Solemn 
Prelude,  the  music  to  "  Herod,"  and  four  Waltzes, 
show  much  breadth  of  treatment,  as  well  as  the 
effective  simplicity  of  means  employed  to  obtain 
really  beautiful  results. 

Coleridge-Taylor  is  now  violin  professor  at  the 
Croydon  Conservatory,  where  he  teaches  with  the 
enthusiasm  that  has  marked  all  of  his  work.  His 
deep  earnestness  is  evident  to  all  who  are  fortunate 
enough  to  meet  him,  and  he  possesses  the  secret 
of  arousing  the  interest  of  others.  He  is  married, 
and  has  two  children,  the  daughter  being  white,  like 
her  mother,  while  the  son  is  of  a  little  darker  hue. 

Stanford,  who  taught  Coleridge-Taylor,  is  one 
of  the  set  of  English  composers  who  worked  to  es- 
tablish the  modern  musical  life  of  that  nation.  With 
four  others,  Parry,  Mackenzie,  Cowen,  and  Thomas, 
he  led  the  musical  renaissance  that  made  possible 
the  advent  of  an  Elgar  or  a  Coleridge-Taylor.  The 
quintette  did  not  form  a  close  union,  such  as  we 
find  under  Balakireff  in  Russia,  but  all  were  men 
of  better  and  broader  training  than  other  musicians 
of  their  time  in  England,  and  their  work  has  tended 
to  a  common  end. 

Charles  Villiers  Stanford  was  born  in  Dublin  on 


ENGLAND  213 

September  30,  1852.  Completing  his  musical 
studies  under  Reinecke  and  Kiel,  he  became  or- 
ganist and  conductor  at  the  University  of  Cam- 
bridge, where  he  passed  a  life  of  activity  in  com- 
position as  well  as  execution.  Among  his  orches- 
tral works  are  numbered  five  symphonies,  two  over- 
tures, a  piano  concerto,  and  a  recent  "  Irish  Rhap- 
sody." His  many  choral  works  include  two  ora- 
torios, "  The  Resurrection,"  and  "  The  Three  Holy 
Children,"  and  several  cantatas.  His  operas  con- 
sist of  "  The  Veiled  Prophet,"  "  Savonarola," 
"  The  Canterbury  Pilgrims,"  "  Shamus  O'Brien," 
and  "  Much  Ado  About  Nothing."  Because  of  its 
popular  subject,  "  Shamus  O'Brien  "  has  won  the 
greatest  success,  but  the  others,  especially  the  last, 
show  much  distinction  and  elegance.  "  The  Canter- 
bury Pilgrims  "  aims  to  do  for  England  something 
similar  to  what  the  "  Meistersinger  "  did  in  Ger- 
many; it  gives  a  rollicking  picture  of  popular  life 
in  the  olden  time,  and  introduces  the  quaint  cus- 
toms and  merry  pranks  of  former  days. 

Charles  Hubert  Hastings  Parry  was  born  at 
Bournemouth,  on  February  27,  1848.  His  musical 
activity  first  became  evident  at  Eton,  and  after- 
ward he  filled  a  position  in  Oxford  life  somewhat 
similar  to  that  of  Stanford  at  Cambridge.  He  has 
composed  four  symphonies,  a  set  of  symphonic 


214  MODERN  COMPOSERS  OF  EUROPE 

variations,  and  two  overtures,  "  To  an  Unwritten 
Tragedy  "  and  "  Guillem  de  Cabestanh."  But  it  is 
in  oratorio  that  his  special  strength  has  been  made 
manifest.  A  composer  of  deep  learning,  he  has 
assimilated  the  excellence  of  Bach  and  Handel,  and 
has  aimed  to  unite  their  great  qualities  with  a  more 
modern  style.  His  sacred  works  include  "  Judith," 
"De  Profundis,"  "Job,"  and  "King  Saul,"  also 
a  great  Magnificat  and  Te  Deum.  In  all  these,  as  in 
his  other  choral  compositions,  he  shows  a  power 
that  appeals  to  the  noblest  emotions  of  the  intelli- 
gent hearer,  and  his  exalted  style,  according  to  one 
critic,  "  brings  all  heaven  before  our  eyes."  Among 
his  secular  works  the  incidental  music  to  the 
"  Frogs  "  and  the  "  Birds  "  of  Aristophanes  de- 
serves the  highest  praise. 

Alexander  Campbell  Mackenzie  was  born  in 
Edinburgh  on  August  22,  1847.  His  studies  took 
him  to  the  Sondershausen  Conservatory  and  the 
Royal  Academy  of  Music,  after  which  he  became 
teacher  and  conductor  in  his  native  city.  A  short 
period  at  Cambridge  was  followed  by  a  return  to 
Edinburgh,  where  he  has  been  for  many  years  asso- 
ciated with  the  university.  In  1881  his  cantata  "  The 
Bride "  proved  him  a  leader  in  the  new  musical 
movement,  but  his  opera  "  Colombe,"  appearing 
two  years  later,  insured  him  a  more  lasting  popu- 


ENGLAND  21$ 

larity,  and  received  a  hearing  in  Germany  as  well 
as  England.  "  The  Troubadour  "  proved  less  in- 
spired, but  the  comic  opera  "  His  Majesty  "  abounds 
in  musical  drollery.  "  The  Cricket  on  the  Hearth  " 
is  still  in  manuscript.  Among  Mackenzie's  other 
works  are  two  oratorios,  "  The  Rose  of  Sharon  " 
and  "  Bethlehem " ;  several  cantatas,  including 
"  The  Story  of  Say  id  "  and  "  The  Cotter's  Saturday 
Night  " ;  two  Scottish  Rhapsodies,  the  ballade  "  La 
Belle  Dame  Sans  Merci,"  and  four  worthy  over- 
tures. His  three  entr'actes  for  "  Manfred "  and 
his  splendid  "  Coriolanus  "  music  mark  the  climax 
of  his  work  in  the  nineteenth  century. 

Frederic  Hymen  Cowen  was  born  at  Kingston, 
Jamaica,  on  January  29,  1852.  His  early  studies 
in  London  were  followed  by  a  period  at  Leipzig, 
under  Reinecke  and  Moscheles,  after  which  he  com- 
pleted his  tuition  with  Kiel  at  Berlin.  His  sojourn 
at  Edinburgh,  as  director  of  the  musical  academy, 
was  followed  by  a  period  of  conductorship,  which 
took  him  at  first  to  London,  then  to  Melbourne,  and 
finally  to  Liverpool  and  Manchester.  He  has  writ- 
ten two  oratorios,  "  Ruth  "  and  "  The  Deluge,"  and 
four  operas,  "  Pauline,"  "  Thorgrim,"  "  Signa," 
and  "  Harold."  Of  his  seven  cantatas,  "  The  Sleep- 
ing Beauty,"  "  St.  John's  Eve,"  and  "  The  Water 
Lily  "  are  delightfully  poetic,  while  "  The  Passions  " 


2l6  MODERN  COMPOSERS  OF  EUROPE 

shows  high  qualities  of  real  emotion.  But  he  is 
perhaps  best  known  by  his  six  symphonies,  of  which 
the  "Scandinavian,"  the  "Idyllic,"  and  the 
"  Welsh  "  rank  in  the  order  named.  The  first  of 
these  is  one  of  the  standard  works  of  modern  times. 

Arthur  Goring  Thomas,  born  November  21,  1850, 
studied  under  Sullivan  and  Prout,  and  passed  his 
life  in  London.  His  natural  inclination,  possibly 
due  to  a  strain  of  French  blood,  turned  him 
to  the  lighter  style  of  romantic  music,  and  in  this 
he  excelled.  His  "  Esmeralda  "  has  shown  effective 
dramatic  qualities  on  the  stage,  though  "  Nadeshda," 
a  later  work,  met  with  less  success.  A  comic  opera, 
"  The  Golden  Web,"  was  completed  and  produced 
by  friends  of  the  composer  after  his  death  in  1892. 
His  choral  ode,  "  The  Sun  Worshippers,"  won  some 
renown  for  him,  but  "  The  Swan  and  the  Skylark," 
another  posthumous  cantata,  met  with  the  greatest 
success  of  any  of  his  compositions. 

The  work  of  these  men  has  given  them  a  place 
of  honour  in  England's  musical  annals.  They  have 
been  untiring  in  their  efforts  to  raise  the  standard 
of  her  music,  and  their  success  has  led  the  way  for 
a  host  of  other  composers.  If  their  music  at  times 
displays  the  academic  quality  that  results  from  ex- 
cess of  learning  over  inspiration,  it  has  none  the 
less  been  of  the  utmost  value  to  their  country. 


ENGLAND  2 1  / 

Among  the  men  who  have  worked  on  lines  parallel 
to  those  of  the  five  leaders,  Sir  J.  Frederic  Bridge 
is  one  of  the  most  noted.  He  took  a  musical  degree 
at  Oxford  in  1868,  and  brought  out  the  Oratorio 
"  Mount  Moriah."  In  the  next  year  he  became 
organist  at  Manchester,  and  in  1882  he  accepted  a 
similar  post  in  Westminster  Abbey,  because  of 
which  he  has  become  known  among  his  friends  as 
"  The  Westminster  Bridge."  His  works  include 
the  other  oratorios,  such  as  "  The  Repentance  of 
Nineveh  "  and  "  The  Rock  of  Ages,"  and  many 
hymns,  canticles,  and  organ  pieces.  He  has  also 
written  the  cantatas  "  Boadicea,"  "  Calirrhoe,"  and 
"The  Inchcape  Rock,"  an  overture,  "  Morte 
d' Arthur,"  and  an  inspiring  setting  of  Kipling's 
"  Flag  of  England."  Like  many  of  his  country- 
men, he  is  fond  of  outdoor  sports.  Fishing  has 
become  his  hobby,  and  he  competes  with  his  wife  for 
high  lines.  He  is  fond  of  joking,  and  his  friends 
considered  it  only  a  fair  revenge,  when  his  line  was 
once  pulled  up,  to  put  some  lead  on  it  and  enjoy 
his  resulting  discomfiture.  As  Gresham  professor 
of  music  in  the  Royal  Academy,  he  relieves  the 
dryness  of  his  subjects  by  constant  flashes  of 
humour.  His  brother,  Dr.  Joseph  Cox  Bridge,  is 
also  a  composer  of  some  ability  and  originality. 

Sir  George  Alexander  Macfarren  passed  away  in 


2l8  MODERN  COMPOSERS  OF  EUROPE 

1887,  after  having  composed  many  symphonies, 
overtures,  cantatas,  and  oratorios.  His  brother, 
Walter  Cecil,  has  long  been  active  at  the  Royal 
Academy,  besides  producing  several  overtures  and 
the  cantata  "  The  Song  of  the  Sunbeam."  Among 
others  of  the  older  generation  are  John  Francis 
Barnett,  Sir  Walter  Parratt,  Charles  Harford  Lloyd, 
Frederick  Corder,  Charles  Lee  Williams,  and  others 
equally  worthy. 

The  excellent  school  of  light  music  which  flour- 
ished under  Sullivan  received  a  setback  with  his 
death;  but  a  new  star  has  arisen  in  the  person  of 
Edward  German.  He  has  not  continued  entirely 
in  the  operatic  line,  but  on  Sullivan's  death  he  was 
already  so  well  known  that  he  was  chosen  to  finish 
the  latter's  "  Emerald  Isle."  Frederic  Clay,  Alfred 
Cellier,  and  Edward  Solomon  essayed  during  their 
lives  to  carry  on  the  school  of  light  opera,  while 
German  has  devoted  himself  more  to  orchestral  and 
incidental  music.  Yet  "  The  Rival  Poets "  and 
"  Merrie  England  "  show  that  this  is  not  from  ne- 
cessity. 

Edward  German,  whose  real  name  is  German 
Edward  Jones,  was  born  at  Whitchurch  on  Febru- 
ary 17,  1862.  He  studied  violin  at  the  Royal  Acad- 
emy, and  after  some  theatrical  work  became  con- 
ductor at  the  Globe  Theatre  in  1889.  He  took  the 


EDWARD    GERMAN. 


ENGLAND  2ig 

post  at  scant  notice,  for  he  was  asked  by  the  author- 
ities, "  Can  you  conduct  ?  "  and  he  decided  that  he 
could. 

His  incidental  music  to  "  Romeo  and  Juliet " 
made  a  name  for  him,  and  an  orchestral  suite  in  D 
minor  also  scored  a  success.  ,  His  music  to  "  As 
You  Like  It,"  "  Richard  III.,"  "  Much  Ado  About 
Nothing,"  "The  Tempest,"  and  "Nell  Gwyn " 
shows  inimitable  grace  and  appropriateness.  An 
"English  Fantasia"  and  the  symphonic  poem  "Ham- 
let "  were  produced  at  Birmingham  in  1897,  and 
a  symphonic  suite,  "  The  Seasons,"  at  Norwich  in 
1899.  He  has  written  two  symphonies,  and  a  num- 
ber of  exquisite  songs.  The  set  of  "  Henry  VIII. 
Dances,"  taken  from  his  incidental  music,  have 
become  world-famous  for  their  graceful  delicacy 
and  charm,  yet  so  elusive  is  fame  that  they  are  often 
spoken  of  as  "  the  German  dances  by  Henry  VIII." 
The  task  of  completing  the  "  Emerald  Isle  "  was 
by  no  means  a  light  one,  for  when  he  took  it  only 
two  of  its  numbers  were  finished,  most  of  the  rest 
merely  indicated  by  melody,  and  the  last  thirteen 
wholly  untouched.  The  bright  and  original  flavour 
of  German's  music  is  all  the  more  remarkable  in 
consideration  of  the  simple  diatonic  means  by  which 
he  attains  his  results. 

Another  composer  endowed   with   rare  melodic 


220  MODERN  COMPOSERS   OF  EUROPE 

gifts  is  Arthur  Somervell,  whose  Mass  and  "  For- 
saken Merman  "  are  more  extensive,  but  no  less 
beautiful,  than  his  many  songs.  A  charming 
"  Elegy  "  and  "  Ode  to  the  Sea  "  have  won  fame 
for  Robert  Bridges,  who  has  written  the  suite  "  In 
Arcady,"  and  many  lesser  works,  but  is  also  best 
known  by  his  songs.  The  music  of  Herbert  Bun- 
ning  has  a  warm  Southern  style,  a  result  of  his 
studies  in  Italy,  while  Samuel  Liddle's  "  Arabian 
Love-Song  "  is  but  one  of  his  many  successes.  The 
piano  music  of  Algernon  Ashton  is  of  excellent 
standard.  In  more  learned  vein,  Stewart  Mac- 
pherson,  leader  of  the  Westminster  Orchestral 
Society,  has  produced  a  good  Mass,  while  Charles 
Wood's  music  to  "  Ion  "  and  "  Iphigenia  in  Tauris  " 
revealed  many  high  qualities.  Alan  Grey,  Fred- 
erick Cliffe,  and  Arthur  Hervey,  belonging  to  a 
slightly  older  generation,  have  shown  truly  poetic 
gifts  which  entitle  them  to  high  rank.  Hamish 
MacCunn,  a  Scotch  graduate  of  the  Royal  College 
of  Music,  took  his  hearers  by  storm  with  his  over- 
tures, "  The  Land  of  the  Mountain  and  Flood  "  and 
"  The  Dowie  Dens  o'  Yarrow."  His  two  operas, 
several  cantatas,  and  numerous  songs  show  that 
he  is  possessed  of  versatility  as  well  as  talent. 

A  set  of  young  men,  undeY  the  lead  of  Granville 
Bantock,    have    recently    brought    themselves    into 


ENGLAND  221 

prominence  by  means  of  the  Queen's  Hall  Prom- 
enade Concerts,  where  their  works,  and  those  of 
other  new  composers,  have  been  brought  before  the 
public.  These  men  and  others  have  in  some  degree 
headed  a  revolt  against  the  formality  of  the  Acad- 
emy and  the  College,  and  the  result  has  been  to  en- 
courage originality  in  thought  and  expression. 

Granville  Bantock,  who  studied  for  a  time  at  the 
Academy,  came  before  the  public  with  a  cantata, 
:<  The  Fire- Worshippers."  His  one-act  operas, 
"  Csedmar  "  and  "  The  Pearl  of  Iran,"  show  much 
richness  of  colour,  and  his  musical  ideas  are  always 
worthy  of  the  great  literary  conceptions  in  which 
he  delights.  He  has  composed  the  overtures  "  Eu- 
gene Aram "  and  "  Saul,"  the  suite  "  Russian 
Scenes,"  and  a  number  of  songs;  but  his  vastest 
work  is  the  orchestral  setting  of  Southey's  "  Curse 
of  Kehama,"  in  a  series  of  no  less  than  twenty-four 
symphonic  poems.  He  is  now  head  of  the  depart- 
ment of  music  in  the  Midland  Institute  at  Birming- 
ham, where  his  energy  and  mental  breadth  are  pro- 
ducing excellent  effect. 

William  Wallace,  the  oldest  of  the  six,  shows 
much  power  of  imagination  in  his  orchestral  works, 
such  as  the  music  to  Ibsen's  "  Lady  from  the  Sea," 
and  the  new  overture  "  Pelleas  and  Melisande." 
Erskine  Allen's  ballad,  "  Annie  of  Lochroyan,"  with 


222  MODERN  COMPOSERS  OF  EUROPE 

orchestra,  a  cantata,  "  The  Oak  of  Geismar,"  and 
an  overture,  "  The  Maid  of  Colonsay,"  have  made 
his  early  death  much  regretted.  Reginald  Steg- 
gall's  scenas  "  Alcestis  "  and  "  Elaine  "  and  his 
"  Ave  Maria "  show  expressive  ideas  and  good 
treatment  of  the  voice.  Stanley  Hawley  has  de- 
voted himself  to  melodrama,  or  music  to  accompany 
recitation,  while  Arthur  Hinton's  songs,  piano 
pieces,  and  "  The  Triumph  of  Caesar,"  for  orchestra, 
show  great  beauty. 

Among  younger  men,  Clarence  Lucas  is  rapidly 
gaining  a  prominent  place  through  his  orchestral 
and  piano  works.  Colin  McAlpin  has  produced 
two  operas,  "  Crescent  and  Cross "  and  "  King 
Arthur,"  as  well  as  the  cantata  "  The  Prince  of 
Peace."  C.  E.  Pritchard  has  written  the  opera 
"  Kunacepa,"  on  an  Indian  subject.  Cyril  Scott 
is  rapidly  winning  fame,  having  composed  five  over- 
tures, two  suites,  a  'cello  concerto,  and  many  cham- 
ber works  and  songs.  Among  other  novelties  heard 
at  Queen's  Hall  in  the  twentieth  century  are  York 
Bowen's  symphonic  poem  "  The  Lament  of  Tasso," 
a  Pastoral  Suite  by  Garnet  Wolseley  Cox,  the  in- 
troduction to  Ernest  Blake's  opera  "  Die  Bret- 
walde,"  a  rhapsody,  "  Into  the  Everlasting,"  by 
Rutland  Boughton,  W.  H.  Reed's  "  Suite  Vene- 
tienne,"  Edgar  Bainton's  symphonic  poem  "  Pom- 


ENGLAND  223 

pilia,"  and  a  concerto  by  Nicholas  Gatty.  Among 
the  women  composers,  Liza  Lehmann  is  renowned 
for  her  beautiful  vocal  cycle,  "  In  a  Persian  Garden," 
while  Frances  Allitsen  has  produced  songs  of  re- 
markable grace.  England's  composers  to-day  are 
far  more  original  than  for  many  years,  and  it  seems 
certain  that  some  among  these  younger  men  will 
continue  the  work  so  nobly  begun  by  Elgar,  and  add 
new  lustre  to  English  music. 


CHAPTER    X. 

THE   NORTHERN    COUNTRIES 

NORWAY  is  preeminently  a  land  of  song-.  Its 
gloomy  forests,  relieved  by  smiling  meadows,  and 
the  impressive  loneliness  of  its  sombre  fiords  have 
at  all  times  found  musical  expression.  Its  very 
folk-lore,  half-Christian,  half-pagan,  lends  itself 
naturally  to  tonal  expression,  and  the  melancholy 
sweetness  of  the  Norwegian  folk-songs  renders  them 
inexpressibly  attractive.  The  Hailing,  the  Spring- 
dans,  and  the  Polska  lend  interest  to  the  national 
dances,  and  give  the  Norwegian  music  a  distinct 
flavour  of  its  own.  It  seems  as  if  native  composers 
could  not  help  realizing  the  force  of  their  own 
folk-music;  yet  the  Danish  Gade,  after  studying 
in  Germany,  became  in  large  measure  a  mere  reflex 
of  Mendelssohn.  In  the  music  of  Grieg,  however, 
these  many  beauties  have  found  a  truer  expression 
than  ever  before  in  the  history  of  any  nation. 

Edward  Hagerup  Grieg  was  born  in  Bergen  on 
June  15,  1843.  As  with  many  musicians  of  genius, 

224 


EDWARD    HAGERUP    GRIEG. 


THE  NORTHERN  COUNTRIES  22$ 

his  artistic  instincts  were  aroused  in  the  home ;  for 
his  mother,  wife  of  the  English  consul  at  Bergen, 
was  a  woman  of  rare  gifts,  and  trained  him  in  piano 
and  many  childish  studies.  He  developed  rapidly, 
and  soon  began  to  show  little  attempts  at  compo- 
sition. In  a  few  years  Ole  Bull,  also  a  native  of 
Bergen,  returned  on  a  short  visit,  and  was  so  struck 
with  the  excellence  of  these  bits  that  he  persuaded 
Grieg's  parents  to  send  him  to  Leipzig.  Too  eager 
work  there  resulted  in  a  dangerous  inflammation 
of  the  diaphragm,  and  laid  the  foundation  of  many 
later  illnesses,  but  the  young  student  completed 
his  course  in  1862.  He  then  travelled  to  Copen- 
hagen, to  gain  the  acquaintance  and  guidance  of 
Gade,  under  whose  direction  his  early  works  were 
composed.  At  the  same  place  he  met  Rikard  Noor- 
draak,  who  aroused  his  enthusiasm  for  the  songs 
and  stories  of  his  native  land. 

After  spending  several  years  in  Copenhagen, 
Grieg  settled  in  Christiania,  where  he  founded  a 
musical  society  that  is  still  flourishing.  He  travelled 
much  in  nearly  all  the  European  countries,  but  was 
always  eager  to  return  to  his  beloved  Norway. 
Since  1880  he  has  settled  near  Bergen,  where  he 
dwells  in  a  charming  villa  just  outside  the  city. 
Here  he  lives  with  his  wife,  a  woman  of  rare  in- 
telligence and  charm,  who  has  accompanied  him 


226  MODERN  COMPOSERS  OF  EUROPE 

on  his  tours  and  sung  his  songs  with  inimitable 
grace.  His  life  is  of  a  retired  sort,  well  in  con- 
sonance with  the  excessive  modesty  of  his  character. 
When  he  makes  his  rare  public  appearances,  to  take 
part  in  a  festival  or  produce  a  new  work,  he  is  the 
recipient  of  the  utmost  homage  and  consideration, 
and  for  once,  in  spite  of  the  proverb,  the  prophet 
is  not  without  honour  in  his  own  country.  In  later 
years  he  has  drawn  the  government  pension  with 
which  Norway  endows  those  of  her  composers  who 
have  shown  real  genius. 

In  person  he  is  slight,  somewhat  thin,  and  always 
active.  His  nervous  temperament  allows  him  little 
rest,  and,  when  giving  a  concert,  his  excitement 
in  the  greenroom  becomes  marked.  As  an  orchestral 
leader,  however,  he  becomes  calm,  noble,  and  dig- 
nified, directing  his  men  with  gestures  of  firm  and 
impressive  simplicity. 

His  genius  is  essentially  lyric  and  melodic,  but 
this  in  no  way  detracts  from  the  greatness  of  his 
purely  orchestral  works.  The  first  of  these,  the 
beautiful  "  Autumn  "  overture,  shows  ample  vigour 
and  power,  and  its  clearness  of  expression  never 
becomes  weakness.  The  Norwegian  Dances  mark 
the  beginning  of  that  characteristic  style  that  is 
carried  out  in  the  melodrama  "  Bergliot,"  the  two 
"Peer  Gynt"  suites,  and  "Sigurd  Jorsalfar." 


THE  NORTHERN  COUNTRIES 

The  piano  concerto  is  one  O'f  Grieg's  greatest  works. 
Although  showing  some  influence  of  Schumann,  it 
is  wholly  original  in  effect,  and  the  utmost  perfec- 
tion of  melodic  and  harmonic  architecture  seems 
evident  in  each  phrase,  even  to  the  superb  cadenza 
in  the  first  movement. 

The  Elegiac  Melodies,  the  Norwegian  themes, 
and  the  Holberg  Suite,  all  for  strings,  are  but 
further  examples  of  the  rich  fulness  of  romantic 
expression  that  appears  in  all  Grieg's  compositions. 
The  songs  and  choral  works  with  orchestra  show 
the  same  sympathetic  treatment,  while  the  chamber 
works,  piano  pieces,  and  songs  with  piano  include 
some  of  the  most  exquisite  gems  in  the  entire  mu- 
sical repertoire.  Grieg  has  shown  an  almost  endless 
flow  of  wonderful  melodic  invention.  To  him  is 
given  that  great  gift  of  characterization,  by  which 
a  composer  may  express  a  world  of  meaning  in 
a  few  simple  notes.  In  his  works  the  dominant 
feeling  is  one  of  melting  tenderness,  of  warm  sen- 
timent that  seems  never  to  lose  its  charm.  It  is 
the  spirit  of  his  native  land  that  speaks,  not  merely 
as  in  the  cruder  forms  of  popular  Norwegian  music, 
but  refined  and  etherealized  by  his  own  inspired 
genius.  His  wealth  of  melody  and  bold  richness 
in  new  harmonic  effects  have  caused  many  to  name 
him  as  the  greatest  living  composer. 


228  MODERN  COMPOSERS  OF  EUROPE 

Johann  Severin  Svendsen,  though  occupying  a 
prominent  position  in  Denmark,  is  really  a  Nor- 
wegian, having  been  born  at  Christiania  on  Septem- 
ber 30,  1840.  Son  of  a  military  bandmaster,  he 
soon  showed  a  taste  for  composition,  and  at  the 
age  of  eleven  wrote  a  violin  piece.  Four  years 
later  he  entered  the  army,  and  he  soon  rose  to  the 
position  occupied  by  his  father.  But  he  desired  a 
more  ambitious  career,  and  entered  the  orches- 
tra at  Christiania.  After  a  wandering  tour  as 
violin  virtuoso  in  Sweden  and  North  Germany,  he 
obtained  a  royal  pension,  which  enabled  him  to 
study  at  Leipzig.  On  graduating,  he  gave  concerts 
in  Denmark,  Norway,  and  England,  and  stayed 
two  years  in  Paris  as  a  member  of  the  Odeon 
orchestra.  In  the  French  capital  he  met  and  ad- 
mired an  American  woman  whom  he  afterward 
married  in  her  own  country.  He  knew  Wagner  at 
Bayreuth,  and  gained  much  benefit  from  a  result- 
ing friendship  with  the  Countess  Nesselrode.  After 
a  further  sojourn  in  Paris,  he  returned  to  Chris- 
tiania as  orchestral  leader,  and  in  1883  was  called 
to  Copenhagen,  where  he  now  resides,  to  fill  the 
post  of  court  conductor.  Among  his  musical  pos- 
sessions is  the  baton  formerly  owned  by  Carl  Maria 
von  Weber,  and  inscribed  with  that  composer's 
name. 


THE  NORTHERN  COUNTRIES  229 

In  his  student  days  Svendsen  produced  an  octette 
that  was  played  with  great  success  by  his  comrades. 
Reinecke,  on  being  shown  the  young  pupil's  work, 
declined  to  suggest  any  changes,  but  remarked, 
half  in  sarcasm,  "  I  suppose  your  next  work  will 
be  a  symphony."  In  less  than  a  week  later  Svend- 
sen laid  his  Symphony  in  D  before  the  astonished 
teacher.  His  later  works  include  another  symphony, 
the  overture  to  Bjornson's  "  Sigurd  Slembe,"  an- 
other to  "  Romeo  and  Juliet,"  four  Norwegian 
Rhapsodies,  the  orchestral  legend  "  Zorahayde,"  the 
"  Carnival  at  Paris,"  the  Funeral  and  Coronation 
Marches,  a  Wedding  Cantata,  violin  and  'cello  con- 
certos, and  the  usual  lesser  compositions.  He 
shows  excellent  mastery  of  orchestral  effects,  but 
does  not  possess  the  distinctive  style  of  a  Grieg 
or  a  Dvorak. 

Christian  Sinding  was  born  at  Kongsberg,  Nor- 
way, on  January  n,  1856,  and  is  therefore  one  of 
the  newer  musical  generation.  He,  too,  studied  at 
Leipzig,  and  afterward  won  a  royal  scholarship 
that  took  him  to  Munich  and  Berlin.  He  then  re- 
turned to  his  native  country,  and  settled  in  Chris- 
tiania,  where  he  became  organist  and  teacher.  He 
numbers  among  his  compositions  an  excellent  sym- 
phony, brought  out  under  Weingartner  and  later 
in  America;  a  piano  concerto,  pleasing  because 


23O  MODERN  COMPOSERS  OF  EUROPE 

of  its  melodic  character ;  two  violin  sonatas,  and 
other  chamber  music,  and  some  remarkably  attract- 
ive songs  and  piano  pieces.  Another  prominent 
composer  among  the  younger  Norwegians  is  Ole 
Olsen,  a  native  of  Hammerfest,  whose  symphonic 
poem  "  Asgardsreien  "  is  but  one  of  his  many  suc- 
cesses. Gerhard  Schjelderup  is  one  of  the  moderns, 
and  handles  his  orchestra  with  all  the  complexity 
and  dissonance  of  a  second  Richard  Strauss.  Among 
the  women,  Agathe  Backer-Grohndahl  stands  at  the 
head,  both  as  pianist  and  composer. 

The  national  opera  of  Sweden  was  brought  into 
being  by  Ivar  Hallstrom,  soon  after  the  middle  of 
the  nineteenth  century.  Haeffner,  Dupuy,  and 
Randel  aided  him  in  his  efforts  to  build  up  a  worthy 
school,  and  the  result  was  decidedly  successful. 
But  now  a  still  newer  school  of  Swedish  composers 
has  arisen,  and  an  intense  national  enthusiasm  is  in 
evidence.  The  movement  shows  the  influence  of 
Liszt  and  Wagner,  with  some  of  the  programme 
music  ideas  of  Berlioz  and  a  trace  of  the  earlier 
romanticism  of  Schumann,  but  back  of  it  all  is 
the  plaintive  sweetness  of  the  native  folk-music. 

The  first  of  the  new  romanticists  to  become  fa- 
mous was  Anders  Hallen.  He  was  born  at  Gothen- 
burg December  22,  1846.  His  studies  took  him  to 
Leipzig,  where  he  came  under  the  tuition  of  Rein- 


THE   NORTHERN  COUNTRIES  23! 

ecke,  Rietz,  and  Rheinberger.  On  his  return  he 
became  director  of  the  Gothenberg  Musikverein 
until  1878,  and  at  a  later  date  leader  of  the  Stock- 
holm Philharmonic  Orchestra.  From  1892  he  has 
been  conductor  at  the  Royal  Opera  House  in  that 
city.  His  compositions  include  four  operas,  of 
which  the  first,  "  Harold  the  Viking,"  appeared  in 
1 88 1.  It  was  not  altogether  a  success,  but  a  bet- 
ter fate  awaited  his  three  later  operas,  "  Hexfal- 
lan,"  "  Valdemarskatten,"  and  "  Walborgsmassa." 
Among  his  instrumental  works  are  the  symphonic 
poems  "  Aus  dem  Waldemarssage,"  "  Aus  der 
Gustav-Vasa-Sage,"  and  "  Die  Toten-Insel,"  as  well 
as  a  couple  of  Swedish  Rhapsodies.  He  has  pro- 
duced also  several  important  choral  works,  such 
as  "  Styrbjorn  Starke,"  "  Vom  Pagen  und  der 
Konigstochter,"  "  Der  Traumkonig  und  sein  Lieb," 
"  Das  Schloss  im  Meer,"  and  others.  His  Swedish 
and  German  songs  are  of  rare  beauty. 

Hallen  has  inclined  to  use  Wagnerian  effects. 
His  music  is  massive  and  powerful,  showing  some 
of  the  sombre  impressiveness  of  his  native  province 
of  Bohuslan.  The  strength  of  passion  in  his  works 
almost  makes  us  overlook  his  occasional  lack  of 
individuality,  and  his  melodic  gifts  win  instant  rec- 
ognition. He  strikes  a  happy  note  in  his  marches 
and  dances,  and  shows  much  originality  in  employ- 


232  MODERN  COMPOSERS  OF  EUROPE 

ing  the  native  style.  He  is  not  possessed  of  great 
skill  in  polyphony,  but  his  rich  instrumentation  re- 
sults in  an  excellent  blending  of  the  Wagnerian 
manner  with  the  Swedish  folk-song. 

Emil  Sjogren,  born  at  Stockholm  in  1853,  was 
a  pupil  of  the  conservatory  in  that  city,  studying 
later  under  the  great  Kiel  at  Berlin.  Since  1891 
he  has  been  organist  at  the  Johankirke,  in  Stock- 
holm. His  work  shows  great  harmonic  richness, 
and  a  boldness  in  modulation  that  is  sometimes  car- 
ried too  far,  bringing  about  bizarre  effects  and  a 
feeling  of  nervous  unrest.  His  aim  to  emulate 
Grieg  is  thoroughly  worthy,  but  in  some  of  his 
progressions  he  throws  moderation  to  the  winds. 
His  works,  as  nearly  all  others  in  his  school,  show 
the  influence  of  the  popular  Swedish  style,  but  in 
his  organ  music  there  is  a  trace  of  the  rhythm  and 
emotion  of  Schubert,  while  some  of  his  compositions 
show  a  vivid  power  not  unlike  that  of  Mascagni, 
at  the  other  end  of  Europe.  He  is  too  prone  to 
repeat  his  thoughts,  but  he  can  build  up  great  cli- 
maxes, especially  in  his  chamber  music.  He  ex- 
cels in  the  smaller  forms,  and  his  piano  cycles, 
such  as  "  Auf  der  Wanderschaft,"  "  Erotikon,"  the 
"  Noveletten,"  and  "  Stimmungen,"  are  among  his 
best  works.  The  three  violin  sonatas  are  excellent 
examples  of  their  class,  while  his  organ  works,  such 


THE  NORTHERN  COUNTRIES  233 

as  the  "  Bacchanal  "  and  the  "  Johannis-Kantate," 
are  thoroughly  effective.  But  his  greatest  popularity 
comes  from  his  songs,  and  such  lyrics  as  "  Der 
Vogt  von  Tenneberg,"  the  seven  Spanish  Songs,  and 
the  "  Tannhauser  Lieder,"  are  among  the  very  best 
of  Swedish  vocal  music. 

Wilhelm  Stenhammar  was  born  in  Stockholm  in 
1871.  Much  younger  than  Hallen  or  Sjogren,  he 
became  their  pupil  before  growing  into  a  position 
as  their  rival  in  fame.  He  holds  the  post  of  second 
opera  conductor,  and  he  has  had  some  experience 
in  leading  the  Stockholm  Philharmonic  Orchestra. 
He  is  a  son  of  P.  U.  Stenhammar,  who  also  did 
much  for  Swedish  music.  His  operas,  strongly 
Wagnerian  in  effect,  do  not  possess  lasting  qualities, 
and  such  works  as  "Tirfing"  and  the  "Hochzeit  auf 
Solhaug  "  are  laid  aside  after  a  few  performances. 
But  his  smaller  works,  such  as  the  piano  sonata  or 
the  three  "  Phantasie-Stiicke,"  show  most  decided 
excellence.  He  has  written  some  large  works  for 
voices  and  orchestra,  such  as  "  Prinsessan  och  Sven- 
nen,"  "  Snofrid,"  and  the  Dedication  Cantata,  also 
the  orchestral  ballad  "  Florez  och  Banzeflor,"  three 
string  quartettes,  and  some  song  albums.  His 
works  show  a  delightfully  youthful  enthusiasm,  and 
a  warm  richness  of  harmonic  beauty.  In  this,  as 


234  MODERN  COMPOSERS  OF  EUROPE 

in  his  polyphonic  skill,  he  surpasses  Hallen,  though 
less  able  to  create  pregnant  melodic  thoughts. 

Wilhelm  Peterson-Berger  is  the  most  successful  of 
the  Swedish  dramatic  composers.  Like  Wagner,  he 
writes  his  own  librettos.  He  shows  the  influence 
of  the  Bayreuth  master,  but  adapts  it  to  the  simpler 
vein  of  the  Swedish  song.  Mozart  is  another  guide 
for  him,  though  the  union  of  these  two  styles  seems 
hardly  possible.  His  operatic  lyrics,  as  well  as  his 
songs,  show  a  hearty  warmth  of  feeling.  They  are 
sometimes  of  a  rather  pensive  character,  but  gen- 
erally full  of  a  sunny,  cheerful  sweetness,  and 
always  eminently  singable.  His  E-minor  violin 
sonata  and  his  male  choruses  are  worthy  works, 
but  his  chief  reputation  comes  from  his  operas, 
which  include  "  Sveagaldrar,"  "  Das  Gliick,"  and 
the  more  recent  music-drama  "  Ran." 

Hugo  Alfven  is  the  only  prominent  symphonist 
in  Sweden.  Born  at  Stockholm  in  1872,  he  studied 
at  the  local  conservatory  and  became  a  violinist  in 
the  Hofkapelle.  His  two  symphonies,  in  F  minor 
(1897)  and  D  major  (1899)  have  aroused  great 
hopes  for  his  future  career.  His  violin  sonata, 
Centennial  Cantata,  Triumphal  March,  and  songs 
with  orchestra,  show  a  mastery  of  contrapuntal 
part-writing.  He  is  to  some  extent  a  follower  of 
Brahms,  but  his  fine  workmanship  lacks  the  creative 


THE   NORTHERN  COUNTRIES 


inspiration  of  Hallen.  His  second  symphony  shows 
this  weakness  clearly,  in  spite  of  a  great  first  move- 
ment, and  he  will  not  win  real  success  until  he 
becomes  less  intricate  and  abstruse. 

Tor  Aulin,  the  great  violinist,  was  born  in  1866. 
He  studied  the  instrument  with  Sauret,  and  became 
Concertmeister  in  the  Hofkapelle.  He  has  been 
an  active  worker  in  the  musical  life  of  Stockholm, 
for  the  Aulin  quartette  and  the  Swedish  Musical 
Union  both  owe  their  origin  to  him.  He  has  writ- 
ten three  violin  concertos,  while  his  Four  Idylls  also 
display  remarkable  beauty.  He  shows  a  slight  in- 
fluence of  Schumann,  but  is  distinctively  national  in 
style,  and  is  gifted  with  real  power  of  musical  ex- 
pression. 

Erik  Akerberg,  director  of  the  Harmonic  Society, 
has  produced  the  choral  works  "  Der  Fliegende 
Hollander  "  and  "  Tornrosas  Saga,"  as  well  as  or- 
chestral and  chamber  works.  His  efforts  are  too 
ultra-Wagnerian,  but  in  his  songs  he  shows  much 
beauty.  Gustav  Hagg,  organist  at  the  Klarakirche, 
is  active  in  many  forms  besides  those  for  his  in- 
strument. Bror  Beekman  has  composed  some 
worthy  violin  pieces  and  songs,  while  Gosta  Geijer 
has  written  excellent  solos  with  orchestra.  P. 
Noderman,  of  Malmo,  has  produced  the  opera 
"  Konig  Magnus,"  and  many  children's  songs.  In 


236  MODERN  COMPOSERS  OF  EUROPE 

the  field  of  piano  music,  prominence  has  been 
achieved  by  Ruben  Liliefors,  Patrik  Vletbad,  J. 
Erikssohn,  L.  Lundberg,  and  many  others.  An- 
dersen is  working  in  the  symphonic  field,  while 
Wideen  devotes  himself  to  male  choruses.  Among 
the  women,  Elfrida  Andree  stands  first,  while  Helen 
Munktell,  Valborg  Aulin,  and  Alice  Tegner  have 
done  sterling  work. 

In  Denmark  the  chief  composer  for  many  years 
was  Gade,  and  all  others  seemed  obscured  by  his 
lustre.  Even  J.  P.  E.  Hartmann,  a  man  of  great 
gifts,  was  forced  into  the  background,  and  his  son 
Emil,  who  died  recently,  was  also  little  known  out- 
side of  his  native  land.  Svendsen  has  identified  him- 
self with  Danish  music,  but  the  climax  of  his  career 
seems  past,  and  there  is  now  more  room  for  the 
younger  men  to  make  a  name  for  themselves. 

In  opera,  Denmark  could  show  few  great  native 
productions  before  1890.  "  Die  Kleine  Christine  " 
and  "  Konig  und  Marschall  "  appeared  in  1846  and 
1878  respectively,  and  it  seemed  as  if  these  would 
be  the  only  important  dramatic  works  of  the  cen- 
tury, when  in  1892  August  Enna  won  a  popular 
triumph  with  "  Die  Hexe." 

August  Enna  was  born  at  Nakskov  on  May 
13,  1860.  Son  of  a  shoemaker,  he  received  little 
beyond  the  most  ordinary  education,  both  in  his 


THE  NORTHERN  COUNTRIES  237 

native  village  and  in  Copenhagen,  where  the  family 
settled  in  his  tenth  year.  The  boy  was  given  chances 
in  trade  and  in  manual  work,  but  did  not  enjoy 
either  vocation.  He  had  begun  to  practise  piano 
by  himself,  and  at  the  age  of  eighteen  he  received 
a  few  lessons  in  violin  and  theory,  but  all  his  deep 
knowledge  of  instrumentation  was  entirely  due  to 
his  own  efforts. 

Not  being  proficient  enough  as  violinist  to  enter 
the  Copenhagen  orchestra,  he  organized  a  small 
band  and  made  a  tour  to  Finland  with  it.  On  his 
return,  after  six  months,  he  began  composing  for 
the  stage,  and  his  operetta,  "  Eine  Dorfgeschichte," 
made  his  name  known  in  the  provinces.  In  1883 
he  was  Kapellmeister  in  a  small  theatre,  for  which 
he  composed  entr'actes  and  overtures  when  he  was 
too  poor  to  buy  scores.  In  the  next  year  his  opera 
"  Areta "  was  accepted  at  the  royal  theatre,  but 
never  brought  out.  A  similar  fate  awaited  a  second 
opera,  "  Aglaia,"  but  this  is  no  longer  in  existence, 
for  in  the  days  of  poverty  its  composer  was  forced 
to  sacrifice  the  manuscript  as  fuel.  An  orchestral 
suite,  produced  at  the  Tivoli  concerts,  showed  the 
influence  of  Delibes  and  Saint-Saens,,  then  Enna's 
favourite  composers,  while  a  symphony  in  C  minor 
gained  favourable  notice  from  Gade  and  won  its 
composer  a  prize. 


238  MODERN  COMPOSERS  OF  EUROPE 

With  the  money  thus  obtained,  Enna  travelled 
about  and  studied,  but  he  did  not  cease  composing. 
The  first  three  acts  of  "  Die  Hexe  "  were  written 
in  foreign  lands,  while  the  fourth  was  finished  at 
home.  Poverty  still  pressed  hard,  for  teaching  and 
piano  playing  in  a  restaurant  brought  little  revenue. 
The  opera  was  accepted  by  the  royal  theatre  in  1889, 
but  laid  aside  and  forgotten  for  over  two  years. 
It  was  then  accidentally  inspected,  and  its  beauty 
charmed  Svendsen,  who  aided  in  having  it  pro- 
duced. Only  after  its  great  and  sudden  success  did 
it  become  known  that  the  composer  had  been  almost 
driven  to  end  his  career,  for  lack  of  the  sheer 
necessities  of  life.  "  Die  Hexe,"  after  Arthur  Fit- 
ger's  drama  of  the  same  name,  aroused  wide-spread 
admiration  for  the  boldness  and  skill  with  which 
its  young  composer,  hitherto  unknown,  handled 
his  orchestral  masses  and  created  his  dramatic 
effects.  His  vocal  fluency  and  melodic  excellence, 
perhaps  inherited  from  an  Italian  grandfather,  won 
the  favour  of  the  public  at  an  instant's  notice. 

After  this  first  success  came  "  Cleopatra,"  writ- 
ten with  all  the  enthusiasm  aroused  by  the  warm 
reception  of  the  earlier  work.  "  Cleopatra,"  how- 
ever, met  with  some  coldness  when  first  brought 
out,  and  it  is  only  in  the  most  recent  years  that  it 
has  received  full  recognition.  This  is  due  in  part 


THE  NORTHERN  COUNTRIES  2$$ 

to  some  alterations  made  by  the  composer,  but 
better  artists  in  the  cast  and  a  more  adequate  stage 
setting  have  probably  revealed  beauties  that  were 
unnoticed  before. 

"  Aucassin  and  Nicolette  "  and  "  Lamia  "  came 
next  in  order  of  composition,  but  a  new  renown 
awaited  the  composer  in  the  field  of  the  fairy  opera. 
If  Humperdinck  has  done  well  in  employing 
Grimm's  tales,  certainly  Enna  acted  wisely  in  set- 
ting the  works  of  his  well-loved  countryman  Hans 
Christian  Andersen.  "  Das  Streichholzmadel " 
(The  Little  Match-Girl)  won  most  decided  appre- 
ciation, not  only  in  Denmark,  but  also  when  pro- 
duced in  other  lands,  such  as  Germany,  Austria, 
Holland,  and  Russia.  Enna  has  been  eminently 
successful  in  imparting  the  charm  of  simple  pathos 
to  the  music,  and  its  direct,  appealing  beauty  wins 
all  audiences.  Enna  has  done  further  work  in  this 
direction,  his  later  efforts  being  "  Die  Erbsenprin- 
zessin,"  "  Die  Schaferin  und  der  Schornsteinfeger," 
and  "  Ib  und  die  kleine  Christine."  He  is  at  pres- 
ent busied  with  two  more  of  these  fable-operas, 
"Die  Geschichte  einer  Mutter"  and  "Die  Nach- 
tigall,"  while  his  work  in  other  directions  includes 
"  Heisse  Liebe  "  and  a  proposed  sequel  to  "  Cleo- 
patra." Enna  is  at  present  the  only  operatic  com- 


240  MODERN  COMPOSERS   OF  EUROPE 

poser  of  Denmark  who  is  known  outside  of  his 
native  land. 

The  death  of  Lassen  removed  a  prominent  figure 
from  Danish  musical  life,  for  his  familiar  songs 
gained  even  more  fame  for  him  than  his  operas 
and  orchestral  works.  Among  the  other  men,  the 
name  of  Otto  Mailing  is  mentioned  with  much 
praise  because  of  his  piano  pieces  and  other  works. 
Victor  Bendix,  formerly  a  pupil  and  protege  of 
Gade,  lives  in  Copenhagen  as  piano  teacher  and 
conductor,  and  has  composed  three  symphonies,  in- 
cluding the  "  Felsensteigung  "  and  the  "  Sommer- 
klange  aus  Siidrussland."  Joachim  Andersen, 
court  conductor  since  1895,  is  a  flutist,  and  has 
written  much  for  his  instrument.  Attrup,  another 
pupil  of  Gade,  succeeded  his  master  as  organ 
teacher  in  the  Copenhagen  conservatory,  and  has 
composed  songs  as  well  as  organ  works.  Emil 
Hornemann  is  responsible  for  the  overtures  "  Alad- 
din "  and  "  Heldenleben,"  while  August  Winding, 
director  of  the  conservatory,  numbers  sonatas  and 
a  violin  concerto  among  his  works.  Ludwig 
Schytte,  who  makes  his  home  in  Berlin,  was  orig- 
inally a  pharmacist,  but  afterward  a  pupil  of  Neu- 
pert  and  Gade,  and  a  friend  of  Liszt.  His  piano 
pieces,  as  well  as  a  concerto  and  many  studies,  have 
made  his  name  known,  while  his  stage  works  con- 


THE   NORTHERN  COUNTRIES  241 

sist  of  "  Hero,"  widely  given,  the  burlesque  op- 
eretta "  Circus-Damen,"  the  very  successful  pan- 
tomime "  Atelderspuck,"  the  recent  comic  opera 
"  Der  Mameluck,"  and  "  Die  Schwalbe,"  in  prepara- 
tion for  an  early  date. 

Finland,  too,  has  added  new  names  to  the  roll 
of  musicians.  This  land  of  sorrow  and  sublimity, 
this  Suomi  with  its  heaths  and  forests  and  thousand 
lakes,  is  the  home  of  beautiful  poetry.  The  Kale- 
vala,  the  national  epic,  may  not  equal  the  Homeric 
poems  in  power,  but  it  tells  the  legends  of  the  Finns 
much  in  the  same  way  that  the  Iliad  narrates  those 
of  the  Greeks.  It  is  even  said  that  Longfellow 
borrowed  the  incidents  of  his  "  Hiawatha  "  from 
the  Kalevala,  though  this  was  merely  a  chance  re- 
semblance. Then  there  are  the  Kanteletar,  or 
short  lyrics,  sung  to  the  steel-stringed  lute  that 
goes  by  the  name  of  Kantele.  The  imaginative 
beauty  in  these  two  groups  has  ever  been  the  de- 
light of  the  Finnish  people.  They  were  first  for- 
mulated and  arranged  by  Elias  Lonnrot,  in  the 
early  part  of  the  nineteenth  century. 

The  earliest  composer  of  Finland  was  Bernhard 
Crusell,  who  lived  from  1775  to  1838,  and  spent 
the  greater  part  of  that  time  in  Sweden  and  Ger- 
many. He  set  melodies  to  Tegner's  "  Frithjof," 
and  composed  an  opera,  "  Die  Kleine  Sklavin." 


242  MODERN  COMPOSERS  OF  EUROPE 

But  the  real  father  of  Finnish  music  was  Fredrik 
Pacius,  who  was  born  in  Hamburg  in  1809,  but 
passed  his  life  in  Finland.  To  him  is  due  the 
national  hymn,  "  Wartland,"  in  which  the  glowing 
patriotism  of  Runeberg  finds  an  echo  in  the  deep 
inspiration  of  the  music.  "  Suomi's  Song "  also 
brought  him  immortal  fame.  He  was  a  violinist, 
a  follower  of  Spohr,  and  a  prolific  composer,  as 
well  as  a  teacher  in  the  university  at  Helsingfors. 
His  first  opera,  "  Kung  Carls  Jakt,"  was  the  earliest 
dramatic  work  in  Finland,  and  his  "  Lorelei,"  in 
Wagnerian  vein,  and  the  Singspiel  "  Die  Princessin 
von  Cypern,"  brought  him  new  laurels.  When  he 
died,  in  1891,  the  entire  nation  mourned  for  him. 
His  son-in-law,  Karl  Collan,  composed  two  very 
popular  choral  marches,  "  Wasa  "  and  "  Savolaisen 
Laulu." 

Filip  von  Schantz,  who  died  in  1865  at  the  age 
of  thirty,  was  a  richly  gifted  musician,  who  wrote 
songs,  choruses,  and  lyric  cantatas.  Carl  Gustaf 
Wasenius  lived  at  Abo,  the  former  capital,  where 
he  conducted  and  directed  the  organ  school.  Conrad 
Greve,  of  the  same  place,  wrote  music  to  Berndtson's 
historical  drama,  "  Aus  dem  Kampfe  des  Lebens." 
A.  G.  Ingelius  composed  songs  that  were  full  of 
wild  spirit,  while  F.  A.  Ehrstrom  wrote  simpler  and 
more  popular  melodies,  and  K.  J.  Mohring  devoted 


THE   NORTHERN  COUNTRIES  243 

himself  to  male  choruses.  Gabriel  Linsen  was 
another  early  writer  of  popular  songs.  The  lyrics 
of  the  people  still  show  traces  of  the  old  runic 
style,  and  the  odd  5-4  rhythm  adds  a  touch  of  weird- 
ness  that  enhances  their  charm. 

Richard  Faltin,  the  successor  of  Pacius,  was  born 
in  1835.  He  founded  the  Gesangverein,  and  gave 
classical  German  music.  He  still  lives,  in  Helsing- 
fors,  where  his  work  as  teacher  of  piano  and  organ 
is  no  less  renowned  than  his  many  songs,  choruses, 
and  cantatas.  The  director  of  the  Musical  Institute 
is  Martin  Wegelius,  and  his  labours  in  placing  it 
on  a  firm  foundation  have  been  of  the  utmost  value. 
His  songs  and  choral  numbers  show  many  beau- 
ties, his  overture  to  the  tragedy  "  Daniel  Hjort " 
is  a  worthy  work,  and  his  historical  writings  are  of 
unusual  excellence.  Robert  Kajanus  is  the  founder 
and  leader  of  the  Helsingfors  Philharmonic  Or- 
chestra and  the  Symphonic  Chorus.  His  works  in- 
clude the  symphonic  poems  "  Aino  "  and  "  Kuller- 
vos  Trauermarsch,"  on  subjects  from  the  Kalevala, 
a  Finnish  Rhapsody,  and  "  Summer  Reminiscences," 
based  on  national  themes. 

Armas  Jarnefelt,  born  in  1869,  is  one  of  the 
young  nationalists.  His  orchestral  suites  and  the 
symphonic  poem  "  Korsholm "  show  rich  instru- 
mentation, lyric  beauty,  and  an  epic  power  of  utter- 


244  MODERN  COMPOSERS  OF  EUROPE 

ance.  Ernest  Mielck,  who  died  at  Lucarno  in  his 
twenty-third  year,  composed  a  symphony  and  other 
orchestral  works  of  such  expressive  charm  that 
he  has  been  called  the  Finnish  Schubert.  Oskar 
Merikanti,  born  in  1868,  produced  an  opera,  "  The 
Maid  of  Pobja."  Erik  Melartin,  another  song- 
writer, studied  in  Vienna  and  in  Italy.  Ilmari 
Krohn  has  composed  motets  and  instrumental 
works,  while  he  is  also  known  as  a  teacher  at  the 
Helsingfors  Hochschule  and  an  interesting  mag- 
azine writer.  Emil  Genetz  aroused  enthusiasm  with 
his  "Heraa  Suomi "  ("Awake,  Finland!")  and 
other  male  choruses,  while  Selim  Palmgren  has 
produced  songs  and  piano  pieces  of  much  bril- 
liancy. 

But  the  greatest  of  the  Finnish  composers,  the 
only  one  who  draws  the  government  pension  for 
musical  excellence,  is  Jean  Sibelius.  He  was  born 
in  1865,  and  brought  up  for  the  legal  profession. 
But  he  knew  how  to  play  the  violin,  and  decided  on 
a  musical  career,  studying  first  under  Wegelius, 
then  with  Albert  Becker  at  Berlin  and  Goldmark 
in  Vienna.  He  then  returned  to  Helsingfors,  where 
he  now  heads  the  younger  school  of  Finnish  music. 
His  two  symphonies,  though  well-planned  works, 
are  marked  with  some  reserve  of  expression.  He 
is  more  inspired  in  his  symphonic  poems,  such  as 


JEAN    SIBELIUS. 


THE  NORTHERN  COUNTRIES  245 

"  Kullervo,"  with  soloists  and  chorus,  and  the  com- 
panion legends  "  The  Swan  of  Tuonela "  and 
"  Lemminkainen,"  from  the  Kalevala.  "  Isloss- 
ningen,"  "  Sandels,"  and  "  Snofrid  "  also  demand 
a  chorus.  His  other  compositions  include  cantatas, 
vocal  ballads,  the  suite  "  Carelia,"  string  quartettes 
and  quintettes,  piano  pieces,  songs,  and  male  cho- 
ruses. His  suite  "  King  Christian  IV."  is  a  re- 
markable work,  and  the  Elegy  from  it  is  thoroughly 
typical  of  the  deep  earnestness  of  the  Finnish 
nature.  Sibelius  has  added  new  lustre  to  the  musical 
fame  of  his  country,  and  has  proven  himself  a  com- 
poser of  real  greatness. 


CHAPTER   XI. 

THE   NATIONAL   RUSSIANS 

To  understand  properly  the  music  of  Russia,  the 
hearer  should  be  familiar  with  the  country  and  its 
history;  not  its  geographical  limits  merely,  but  its 
vast  stretches  of  steppes,  its  lonely  summers,  its 
dreary  winters,  and  the  patient  poverty  of  its  long- 
suffering  peasants;  not  the  dry  record  of  its  past, 
but  its  legendary  lore,  the  dramatic  deeds  of  its 
heroes,  the  poetry  of  Pushkin  and  Gogol,  and  the 
realism  of  Tolstoi  and  Turgenieff.  Striking  as  the 
Russian  music  is,  it  becomes  doubly  significant 
when  its  meaning  is  understood,  and  the  conditions 
under  which  it  came  into  being  are  appreciated. 

The  folk-music,  the  melodies  of  the  people,  trace 
their  origin  back  to  pagan  times,  and  include  epic 
chants  of  martial  glories,  songs  of  weddings  and  of 
funerals,  weirdly  beautiful  cradle-songs,  and  even 
traces  of  invocations  to  the  old  gods.  In  more 
modern  times  came  the  lyrics  of  the  peasantry, 
for  the  Slav  is  eminently  musical,  and  sings  while 

246 


THE   NATIONAL  RUSSIANS  247 

he  Works.  All  these  melodies  display  the  most 
piquant  variety  of  pleasing  but  unexpected  pro- 
gressions; the  harmonies,  with  their  plagal  and 
Phrygian  cadences,  possess  a  crystalline  purity, 
and  their  very  strangeness  opens  new  vistas  to  the 
imagination;  and  the  rhythm,  delicate,  capricious, 
shifting  in  an  instant,  is  always  in  perfect  accord 
with  the  words.  Every  accent,  every  emotion,  is 
found  in  this  folk-music;  at  times  an  almost  savage 
strength  and  spirit,  at  times  a  majestic  tranquillity, 
sympathetic  grace,  and  brisk  gaiety,  but  more  often 
a  profound  melancholy. 

The  church  music,  too,  flourishes  in  unusual 
purity.  The  older  czars  had  their  royal  cho- 
ruses in  Moscow,  which  in  later  days  have  be- 
come the  glory  of  the  imperial  chapel.  The  voices 
are  chosen  from  among  the  most  beautiful  that  can 
be  obtained,  chiefly  from  the  Ukraine  district,  where 
the  best  are  always  to  be  found.  The  Greek  Church 
allows  no  instruments,  and  the  rich,  full  voices, 
trained  to  perfection,  produce  a  remarkable  effect 
when  singing  in  the  unusual  modes  that  are  gen- 
erally employed.  It  was  for  this  ecclesiastical  service 
that  Bortniansky,  in  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  wrote  his  music  to  forty-five  different 
songs. 

It  was  even  earlier  than  this  that  Italian  opera 


248  MODERN  COMPOSERS  OF  EUROPE 

was  first  imported  into  Russia.  The  Neapolitan 
composer  Araja,  called  to  court  by  the  Empress 
Anne  Ivanovna,  produced  several  operas  at  St. 
Petersburg,  and  in  1755,  at  the  request  of  the  Em- 
press Elizabeth  Petrovna,  set  a  Russian  text  for 
the  first  time.  Under  Catherine  II.  opera  flourished 
as  never  before,  although  still  in  Italian,  and  the 
composers  Galuppi,  Traetta,  and  Paisiello  were 
called  in  succession  by  the  authorities.  Sarti 
and  Martini  came  afterward,  and  even  Cimarosa 
spent  three  profitable  years  at  the  capital.  In  1803, 
Italian  opera  gave  way  to  the  French  article,  and 
among  others  Boieldieu  passed  many  years  in  Rus- 
sian service. 

Meanwhile  there  were  quite  a  number  of  works  in 
Russian,  but  these  were  always  due  to  foreign  com- 
posers. The  Venetian  Cavos,  however,  became  so 
identified  with  music  in  Russia  that  he  might  almost 
have  been  counted  as  a  native.  One  of  his  subjects, 
"  Ivan  Sussanina,"  was  destined  to  be  employed 
later  as  the  origin  of  Russian  opera.  In  the  early 
part  of  the  nineteenth  century  Vertowsky  produced 
a  number  of  successful  works,  of  which  "  Askold's 
Tomb  "  remained  longest  in  favour ;  but  he  lacked 
the  musical  training  needed  to  give  his  works  per- 
manent historical  value.  It  remained  for  Michael 
Ivanovitch  Glinka  to  become  the  real  founder  of  a 


THE  NATIONAL   RUSSIANS  249 

native  school  of  opera,  and  his  "  Life  for  the  Czar  " 
was  received  with  profound  enthusiasm  by  the  entire 
nation. 

Other  composers  followed,  the  best  of  whom  were 
Dargomishky  and  Seroff.  The  career  of  the  former 
extended  until  recent  years,  and  his  later  works 
show  that  the  Wagnerian  style  had  no  less  influence 
in  Russia  than  elsewhere.  Meanwhile  instrumental 
music  grew  also.  The  rich  melodic  beauty  of  Rubin- 
stein was  for  many  years  taken  by  Europe  as  the 
true  type  of  Russian  music,  and  only  the  more  pas- 
sionate power  of  Tschaikowsky  placed  it  in  the 
background.  But  even  Tschaikowsky  is  not  con- 
sidered truly  Russian,  and  is  accused  by  his  coun- 
trymen of  being  too  German. 

Of  the  five  men  who  joined  in  an  effort  to  make 
Russian  music  distinctively  national,  Mily  Alex- 
ejevitch  Balakireff,  if  not  the  greatest  composer, 
may  at  least  be  justly  called  the  founder  of  the 
movement.  He  was  born  at  Nijni-Novgorod  on 
January  2,  1837.  After  his  education  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Kazan,  he  returned  to  his  native  city, 
where  he  came  under  the  influence  of  Alexander 
Oubilicheff.  This  man,  a  retired  diplomat  who 
lived  on  his  estate,  was  a  decided  conservative  in 
music,  and  had  written  important  works  upon 
Mozart  and  Beethoven.  Balakireff,  however,  was 


250  MODERN  COMPOSERS  OF  EUROPE 

already  an  independent  in  spirit,  and  profited  rather 
in  a  technical  way  than  in  theoretical  guidance. 

He  was  scarcely  twenty  when  he  settled  in  St. 
Petersburg,  where  he  made  his  debut  as  a  pianist 
and  studied  music  with  deep  earnestness.  At  that 
time  he  became  acquainted  with  Glinka,  who  dis- 
played much  sympathy  for  the  young  enthusiast. 
Soon  afterward  he  met  Cesar  Cui,  with  whom  he 
quickly  became  intimate.  The  constant  exchange 
of  ideas  between  the  two,  and  their  discussion  of 
artistic  subjects,  soon  led  them  to  the  principles  of 
nationalism  upon  which  the  new  Russian  school  was 
to  be  based. 

Balakireff  was  also  active  in  other  directions. 
His  piano  playing  won  him  some  measure  of  fame, 
and  in  1862  he  founded  the  Free  Music  School  and 
organized  the  concerts  which  were  destined  to  make 
known  the  works  of  the  five  associates.  He  made 
a  thorough  study  of  the  popular  music  of  his  nation, 
for  according  to  his  ideas  this  should  form  the  basis 
of  all  Russian  music,  fashioned  into  classical  form 
much  as  Dvorak  wrote  the  New  World  Symphony. 
In  1866  he  made  an  excellent  collection  of  popular 
songs  and  melodies.  Soon  after  this  he  was  en- 
trusted with  the  leadership  of  the  concerts  given 
by  the  Imperial  Musical  Society,  and  still  later  he 
became  director  of  the  chorus  in  the  imperial  chapel. 


MILY    ALEXEJEVITCH    BALAKIREFF. 


THE  NATIONAL   RUSSIANS  2$  I 

His  own  compositions  are  not  many,  but  are  dis- 
tinguished by  their  beauty.  They  include  a  sym- 
phony, three  overtures  (on  Russian,  Czech,  and 
Spanish  themes  respectively),  the  symphonic  poem 
"  Russia,"  an  overture,  march,  and  four  entr'actes 
for  "  King  Lear,"  and  the  symphonic  poem  "  Ta- 
mara."  The  last  is  a  richly  coloured  work,  based 
on  a  legend  of  the  Caucasus.  Tamara  was  a  cap- 
tivating but  cruel  princess,  who  lived  in  her  tower 
in  the  gorge  of  Darial,  through  which  ran  the  river 
Tarek.  When  a  cavalier  came  in  the  evening,  there 
would  be  a  night  of  feasting  and  revelry,  but  in 
the  morning  the  river  would  bear  away  his  corpse. 
Another  Oriental  subject  is  the  difficult  piano  fan- 
tasie  "  Islamey."  His  other  works  include  ma- 
zurkas, some  four-hand  pieces,  and  a  score  of  songs. 
After  a  life  of  activity,  Balakireff  has  become  the 
prey  of  religious  mania,  and  is  now  estranged  from 
his  former  friends. 

Here  is  what  Cui  has  to  say  about  his  friend : 
"  A  musician  of  the  first  rank,  an  inexorable  critic 
of  his  own  works,  thoroughly  familiar  with  all 
music,  ancient  as  well  as  modern,  Balakireff  is 
above  all  a  symphonist.  In  vocal  music  he  has 
written  only  twenty  romances,  but  they  are  dis- 
tinguished by  broad  and  limpid  melody,  elegance 
of  accompaniment,  often  also  by  passion  and 


252  MODERN  COMPOSERS   OF  EUROPE 

abandon.  Lyric  beauty  is  everywhere  in  evidence. 
They  are  impulses  of  the  heart,  expressed  by  de- 
licious music.  In  form  they  stand  midway  between 
the  works  of  Glinka  and  Dargomishky  and  those  of 
the  composers  who  followed  him." 

Cesar  Antonovitch  Cui,  the  friend,  comrade,  and 
coworker  of  Balakireff,  was  born  at  Vilna  on  Jan- 
uary 6,  1835.  He  was  the  son  of  a  French  soldier, 
Antoine  Cui,  who  settled  in  Russia  after  Napoleon's 
defeat  and  proved  himself  a  man  of  intellect  and 
an  excellent  French  teacher.  Cesar  Cui,  like  his 
father,  followed  a  military  career,  and  graduated 
from  the  Engineers'  School  in  St.  Petersburg.  He  is 
at  present  a  major-general,  and  professor  of  fortifi- 
cation in  the  military  schools  of  the  capital.  With 
such  a  responsible  position,  his  love  of  music  must 
certainly  have  been  sincere,  or  he  would  never  have 
taken  the  time  for  his  many  efforts  in  composition 
and  criticism. 

After  some  lessons  with  Hermann  and  Dio,  he 
became  a  pupil  of  the  celebrated  Polish  composer 
Moniuszko,  but  it  was  really  Balakireff  who  aroused 
his  enthusiasm  for  the  art,  and  caused  him  to  study 
further  by  himself.  His  first  opera,  "  The  Pris- 
oner of  the  Caucasus,"  based  on  an  early  poem  of 
Pushkin,  was  not  given  until  1883,  long  after  his 
"  William  Ratcliff  "  and  "  Angelo  "  had  appeared. 


ANTONOVITCH    GUI. 


THE  NATIONAL   RUSSIANS  253 

"  Ratcliff  "  is  based  on  Heine's  tragedy,  while  "  An- 
gelo,"  the  composer's  favourite,  is  modelled  after 
Victor  Hugo's  drama.  "  Le  Filibustier  "  was  writ- 
ten for  France,  to  a  libretto  based  on  Jean  Riche- 
pin's  work,  while  "  The  Saracen  "  is  founded  on 
"  Charles  VII.  chez  ses  Grands  Vassaux,"  by 
Dumas.  It  seems  somewhat  strange  to  find  Cui, 
the  literary  champion  of  the  Russian  school,  choos- 
ing so  many  subjects  from  foreign  countries.  None 
of  his  operas  has  met  with  real  success,  and  even 
his  own  fellow  countrymen  accuse  him  of  lacking 
melodic  originality.  There  is  no  plagiarism  in  his 
works,  but  the  themes  are  merely  echoes  of  previous 
composers,  and  not  radically  new  or  interesting. 
His  other  works  include  songs,  piano  pieces,  cho- 
ruses, orchestral  scherzos,  symphonies,  and  the  comic 
opera  "  The  Mandarin's  Son." 

The  theories  of  the  new  Russians  bear  a  singular 
resemblance  to  those  of  Wagner.  Like  him,  these 
composers  revolted  against  the  inanities  of  the  old 
Italian  opera,  which  was  merely  a  singing-concert, 
almost  wholly  devoid  of  real  artistic  worth.  They 
insisted  that  operatic  music  must  be  of  intrinsic 
merit;  that  after  Schumann  and  Beethoven  the 
symphony  could  say  nothing  new,  but  reform  was 
needed  in  opera.  They  held  it  necessary  that  the 
music  should  illustrate  the  drama,  and  that  the 


254  MODERN  COMPOSERS   OF  EUROPE 

drama  should  be  worthy.  Excellence  in  vocal  ex- 
ecution, beauty  in  scenery,  the  gorgeous  effect  of 
stage  pageantry,  the  charm  of  the  ballet  should 
not  be  allowed  to  tempt  a  composer  to  introduce 
trivial  music  into  his  score. 

All  this  sounds  as  if  adopted  directly  from  the 
Wagnerian  publications,  yet  the  Russians  have  in 
large  measure  proceeded  along  their  own  lines. 
Doubtless  the  charm  of  the  Russian  folk-music,  no 
less  than  the  symphonic  beauties  of  the  German 
school,  bred  a  discontent  with  the  meaningless 
Italian  roulades.  In  fact,  Cui  has  very  little  to 
say  in  praise  of  Wagner,  and  alludes  to  his  music- 
dramas  as  an  enormous  mystification,  which  de- 
ceived even  their  composer.  "  It  is  probable," 
writes  Cui,  "  that  he  took  his  sounds,  so  void  of 
ideas,  for  real  music,  his  prolixity  for  divine  melodic 
utterance,  and  that  he  believed  each  of  his  notes 
worth  its  weight  in  gold.  I  would  like  to  preserve 
my  compatriots  from  the  dangerous  contagion  of 
Wagner's  decadence;  whoever  loves  his  music 
ceases  to  appreciate  real  music;  whoever  admires 
his  operas  holds  Glinka  as  a  writer  of  vaudevilles. 
The  desire  to  find  something  deep  where  nothing 
exists  can  have  only  dangerous  consequences."  After 
alluding  to  the  evil  effect  of  Wagnerian  enthusiasm 
on  Joseph  Rubinstein,  Cui  continues :  "  There  is 


THE  NATIONAL   RUSSIANS  255 

no  doubt  that  the  music  of  Wagner  was  a  partial 
cause  of  the  death  of  his  royal  friend,  .  .  .  and  I 
certainly  hope  that  he  will  not  trouble  me  with  his 
anti-musical  operas."  Yet  in  spite  of  this  attitude, 
Cui  could  appreciate  real  musical  worth,  and  with 
the  exception  of  his  operas  his  own  compositions 
show  great  excellence. 

Modest  Petrovitch  Moussorgsky  was  by  all  odds 
the  strangest  figure  in  the  musical  coterie.  Born  at 
Karevo  on  March  28,  1839,  he  obtained  his  school- 
ing in  the  capital,  and  like  Cui  received  a  military 
training  and  became  an  officer.  He  was  not  with- 
out musical  training,  and  after  early  lessons  from 
his  mother  he  would  improvise  themes  to  represent 
the  heroes  of  childish  lore.  In  St.  Petersburg  he 
came  under  the  tuition  of  the  pianist  Herke,  but 
in  spite  of  that  master's  unusual  kindness,  the  pupil 
was  little  amenable  to  rules  and  discipline.  In  less 
than  a  year  of  military  service  this  trait  caused  him 
to  resign  his  army  post  altogether. 

The  life  of  Moussorgsky,  with  its  fondness  for 
drink  and  its  many  excesses,  was  that  of  a  Bohe- 
mian whose  dominating  passions  and  almost  savage 
independence  of  spirit  could  brook  no  restraint. 
After  wasting  time  and  money  for  several  years, 
during  which  he  lived  partly  with  his  mother,  and 
partly  at  his  brother's  home,  he  devoted  himself 


MODERN  COMPOSERS  OF  EUROPE 

to  the  insipid  work  of  translation.  This  was  fol- 
lowed by  a  post  in  the  department  of  civil  engineers, 
but  his  restiveness  again  caused  a  resignation. 
After  another  period  of  misery  came  more  employ- 
ment, this  time  in  the  forestry  department.  Always 
hard  to  satisfy,  he  soon  changed  to  the  department 
of  control,  after  which  he  left  the  government 
service  altogether.  He  made  a  successful  musical 
tour  with  Mile.  Leonova,  a  famous  singer,  but 
his  health  was  too  far  gone  for  him  to  continue 
in  this  field,  and  he  died  in  1881,  on  his  forty- 
second  birthday. 

In  1862  a  meeting  with  Borodin,  leading  to 
a  close  friendship,  caused  an  acquaintance  with 
Balakireff,  and  the  pair  became  members  of  the 
little  circle  which  was  completed  by  the  renowned 
Rimsky-Korsakoff.  If  Moussorgsky  lacked  musical 
training,  and  was  ignorant  of  some  of  the  simplest 
rules  of  composition,  the  weird  and  formless  char- 
acter of  his  music  did  not  entirely  obscure  the  charm 
of  his  wonderful  faculty  for  melody  of  the  most 
original  and  striking  character. 

Moussoro-sky  has  been  spoken  of  as  a  poet  by 
nature,  expressing  his  great  thoughts  in  the  form 
of  an  art  that  he  had  not  mastered.  The  deep 
misery  and  the  strong  passions  of  humanity  find 
an  echo  in  his  wild  utterances,  and  their  force 


MODEST    PETROVITCH    MOUSSORGSKY. 


THE   NATIONAL    RUSSIANS 


is  unmistakable.  Those  that  were  revised  after 
his  death  show  a  smoother  form,  but  lack  the  savage 
power  that  seemed  his  especial  gift.  His  songs,  his 
choruses,  his  piano  pieces,  all  show  the  same  rugged 
strength.  He  wrote  larger  works,  and  even  en- 
tered the  operatic  field  with  "  Boris  Godunoff  "  and 
"  Chovanstchina,"  but  in  these  his  lack  of  training 
showed  itself,  and  they  never  met  with  favour  until 
smoothed  and  polished  by  his  more  learned  friends. 
Such  was  the  case  with  his  symphonic  work,  "  Une 
Nuit  sur  le  Mont-Chauve,"  and  the  "  Intermezzo," 
both  of  which  were  remodelled  by  Rimsky-Kor- 
sakoff.  His  "  Defeat  of  Sennacherib  "  is  but  one 
of  many  Hebraic  Choruses.  The  "  Tableaux  d'une 
Exposition  "  are  among  the  best  of  his  piano  works, 
while  his  songs  include  settings  of  Goethe  and 
Heine  as  well  as  Russian  poets.  Before  his  death 
Moussorgsky  sketched  one  act  of  "  Mlada,"  and 
planned  to  set  Gogol's  "  La  Marieuse." 

Alexander  Porphyrjevitch  Borodin  was  born  at 
St.  Petersburg  on  November  12,  1834.  Through 
his  father  he  was  descended  from  the  princes  of 
Imeretia,  the  loveliest  of  the  old  kingdoms  of  the 
Caucasus,  breathing  the  fragrance  of  the  Orient. 
Its  ancient  kings,  it  is  said,  boasted  descent  from 
David,  and  bore  a  harp  and  a  sling  as  coat-of-arms. 
Borodin  became  a  scientist  of  the  first  rank,  for, 


2$8  MODERN  COMPOSERS   OF  EUROPE 

after  his  studies  at  the  Academy  of  Medicine  and 
Surgery  under  Zinine  he  succeeded  his  master  as 
professor  of  chemistry.  Among  other  scientific  re- 
searches he  published  several  chemical  works  that 
made  him  known  in  Germany  as  well  as  Russia. 
He  became  one  of  the  most  earnest  partisans  of  the 
higher  education  for  women,  and  aided  in  founding 
a  medical  school  for  them,  where  he  taught  chem- 
istry and  worked  actively  until  his  death.  He 
regarded  science  as  his  life-work,  and  often  re- 
frained from  publishing  his  compositions,  as  he  con- 
sidered music  merely  an  avocation. 

Yet  he  commenced  to  compose  at  an  early  age, 
almost  by  instinct.  At  thirteen  he  wrote  a  con- 
certo for  flute  and  piano,  and  soon  afterward  a 
scherzo  for  piano  and  string  sextette.  It  was  only 
after  1862,  however,  when  he  became  a  member  of 
the  group  of  nationalists,  that  he  devoted  himself 
seriously  to  composition.  Five  years  later  his  first 
symphony  was  completed,  and  produced  soon  after 
by  Balakireff.  Encouraged  by  the  success  of  this 
work,  he  began  an  opera  on  Mei's  drama,  "  The 
Czar's  Betrothed,"  but  did  not  complete  it.  He 
produced  then  a  number  of  songs,  such  as  "  La 
Mer,"  "  La  Princesse  Endormie,"  "  Vieille  Chan- 
son," and  others.  These  are  usually  painted  in 
sombre  colours,  and  Borodin  has  shown  hiinself 


ALEXANDER  PORPHYRJEVITCH  BORODIN. 


THE  NATIONAL   RUSSIANS  259 

a  master  of  dissonance  who  is  at  times  too  much 
devoted  to  effects  of  cacophony.  But  there  is  real 
greatness,  also,  in  the  works. 

At  this  time  he  wrote  one  act  of  "  Mlada,"  the 
composite  work  produced  to  order  by  himself,  Cui, 
Moussorgsky,  and  Rimsky-Korsakoff.  This  device 
of  working  together  has  been  followed  by  some 
of  the  younger  composers,  who  gave  homage  to 
their  publisher  Belaieff  by  writing  different  move- 
ments of  a  quartette  on  the  notes  B,  La,  F.  Boro- 
din continued  his  operatic  labours  by  writing 
"  Prince  Igor,"  which  was  not  produced  until  after 
his  death. 

In  the  instrumental  field  a  second  symphony  was 
as  successful  as  the  first,  and  a  third,  incomplete, 
has  been  finished  by  Glazounoff.  An  orchestral 
scherzo  and  two  delightfully  original  quartettes  are 
also  worthy  of  mention,  and  his  choral  and  piano 
music  displays  the  same  qualities  as  his  greater 
compositions.  His  style  is  somewhat  complicated, 
at  times  contrapuntal,  and  full  of  bold  harmonies. 
He  lacks  something  of  unity  and  simplicity,  but 
atones  for  it  by  the  power  of  his  expression  and 
the  national,  almost  personal,  flavour  of  his  music. 

His  "  Steppenskizze  "  was  the  first  of  his  com- 
positions to  become  known  in  America.  It  is  a 
symphonic  sketch  depicting  the  great  Eastern 


26O  MODERN  COMPOSERS  OF  EUROPE 

steppes,  with  all  their  vast  extent  and  deep  loneli- 
ness. Then  comes  the  refrain  of  a  Russian  song, 
followed  by  a  melancholy  chant  of  the  Orient. 
Steps  of  approaching  horses  and  camels  are  heard. 
A  caravan,  escorted  by  Russian  soldiers,  traverses 
the  immense  desert,  and  proceeds  confidently  upon 
its  long  journey,  advancing  always.  Songs  of 
Russians  and  of  Asiatics  mingle  in  the  same  har- 
mony, and  the  whole  dies  away  in  the  distance, 
leaving  the  desert  to  its  loneliness  once  more.  All 
this  is  skilfully  portrayed,  with  admirable  Oriental 
colour. 

"  Prince  Igor  "  is  based  on  an  old  epic,  wrought 
into  modern  form  by  Pushkin.  The  narrative 
deals  with  Igor's  expedition  against  the  warlike 
Polovtsi  of  the  southeast,  just  as  the  Chanson  de 
Roland  deals  with  the  war  of  France  against  the 
Moors.  A  prologue  shows  the  prince  and  his  army 
in  preparation,  and  a  start  is  made  in  spite  of  the 
evil  omen  of  an  eclipse.  The  first  act  shows  Igor's 
native  city,  where  his  wife  Yaroslavna  rules.  Her 
brother  Galitzky,  with  the  aid  of  two  deserters,  tries 
to  undermine  her  influence,  but  news  of  Igor's 
defeat  arouses  renewed  loyalty.  The  second  act  takes 
place  in  the  camp  of  Khan  Kontschak,  the  hostile 
leader,  and  introduces  a  banquet  and  festival.  In 
the  third  act  Igor,  now  a  prisoner,  plies  his  captors 


THE   NATIONAL   RUSSIANS  261 

with  drink,  and  escapes ;  but  his  son  Vladimir,  who 
loves  the  khan's  daughter,  remains  behind.  In 
the  last  act  Yaroslavna  is  lamenting  by  the  ruins 
of  the  palace,  when  Igor  rides  in  with  his  com- 
panions, and  the  joyful  reunion  brings  the  opera 
to  a  happy  close. 

Written  in  spare  moments  taken  from  medical 
commissions,  boards  of  examination,  lectures,  and 
laboratory  work,  the  music  shows  a  delightful  fresh- 
ness. Borodin  used  to  say  that  he  could  only  take 
the  time  to  compose  when  he  was  ill,  so  that  his 
musical  friends  would  often  wish  him  sickness  in- 
stead of  health.  The  music  of  "  Prince  Igor  "  does 
not  aim  to  illustrate  theories  at  the  expense  of 
beauty,  but  is  written  in  clear,  melodic  style,  with 
much  cantilena.  After  the  composer's  sudden  death, 
at  a  lively  evening  party  in  his  house,  the  opera 
was  finished  by  Rimsky-Korsakoff,  while  Glazou- 
noff  performed  the  feat  of  writing  the  overture 
from  memory,  having  once  heard  Borodin  sketch 
it  out  on  the  piano. 

The  greatest  of  the  five  national  composers  is 
by  all  odds  Nicolai  Andre jevitch  Rimsky-Korsakoff. 
He  was  born  at  Tikhvin,  in  Novgorod,  on  May  21, 
1844.  Like  some  of  his  fellow  composers,  he  en- 
tered a  government  school,  devoting  himself  to 
the  naval  branch.  At  a  later  period  he  became 


262  MODERN  COMPOSERS  OF  EUROPE 

music-inspector  of  the  Russian  fleet,  and  he  now 
possesses  the  rank  of  admiral.  Unlike  Borodin,  he 
made  music  his  most  important  life-work,  and  he 
is  the  most  prolific  as  well  as  the  most  famous 
member  of  the  group. 

His  operatic  activity  began  in  1873,  with  "  Psko- 
vitjanka,"  based  on  Mei's  drama  —  a  pleasing 
work,  with  many  Russian  themes  ingeniously  woven 
into  the  score.  Seven  years  later  came  his  famous 
"  May  Night,"  founded  on  a  popular  tale  of  Gogol. 
After  a  period  of  two  years  the  remarkably  beauti- 
ful "  Snegurotschka  "  (Snow  Maiden)  appeared,  in 
which  the  fairy  legend  of  Ostrowsky  was  set  to 
captivating  music.  "  Mlada,"  the  fourth  opera,  on 
the  same  subject  that  had  already  been  treated 
piecemeal  by  four  different  composers,  showed  rare 
gifts  of  modulation.  "  Christmas  Night "  was  in- 
spired by  another  tale  of  Gogol,  the  same  that  gave 
rise  to  Tschaikowsky's  "  Vakula  the  Smith." 

"  Sadko,"  produced  in  1896,  is  based  on  an  old 
Novgorod  story  of  a  merchant-bard  who  catches 
miraculous  fish  and  wins  wagers  by  the  aid  of 
the  sea-king.  On  a  voyage,  however,  his  ship  stands 
still,  and  he  must  give  himself  as  ransom.  He 
marries  the  sea-king's  daughter,  but  the  strains  of 
his  gussli  at  the  wedding-feast  cause  dances  that 
arouse  storms  and  wreck  ships.  To  prevent  further 


THE  NATIONAL   RUSSIANS  263 

damage  St.  Nicholas  breaks  the  strings,  and  Sadko 
returns  home.  But  his  faithful  bride  follows  him, 
and  becomes  the  river  Wolchow,  which  flows  by  the 
city. 

"  Vera  Scheloga "  was  a  prologue  to  the  first 
opera,  "The  Maiden  of  Pskoff."  "Mozart  and 
Salieri  "  is  a  one-act  version  of  Pushkin's  poem, 
based  on  the  suspicion  that  Mozart  was  really 
poisoned  by  his  Italian  rival.  "  The  Czar  Sultan  " 
treats  another  of  Pushkin's  many  subjects.  "  Ser- 
vilia,"  dealing  with  Christianity  in  old  Rome,  was 
somewhat  too  harmonic  and  uninspired,  and  met 
with  comparative  failure,  but  in  "  The  Immortal 
Katschschey,"  given  in  1903  at  Moscow,  another 
legendary  subject  was  treated  with  fair  success. 

The  most  important  opera  of  Rimsky-Korsakoff 
is  probably  "  The  Czar's  Bride."  Produced  first  in 
1901,  it  met  with  pronounced  success,  and  its  com- 
parative resemblance  to  the  operatic  style  of  Western 
Europe  will  undoubtedly  cause  it  to  be  chosen  by 
foreign  nations  in  preference  to  his  other  works. 
Its  plot  deals  with  the  imperial  custom  of  choosing 
a  bride.  Ivan  IV.,  the  Terrible,  selects  Marfa,  a 
merchant's  daughter,  who  is  madly  loved  by  the 
officer  Griaznoi.  The  latter  seeks  a  potion  to  make 
her  forget  Lykoff,  her  former  betrothed,  and  love 
him  alone.  But  his  discarded  sweetheart  Ljubascha 


264  MODERN  COMPOSERS  OF  EUROPE 

substitutes  a  poison,  by  which  the  famous  beauty  of 
Marfa  is  destroyed  at  the  time  of  the  Czar's  choice. 
Griaznoi,  learning  the  truth,  stabs  Ljubascha  and 
gives  himself  up  to  the  authorities.  The  music 
to  this  tragic  plot  is  of  rare  melodic  beauty,  truly 
national  in  style,  and  showing  in  every  measure 
the  inspired  hand  of  a  master.  The  overture  has 
already  become  familiar  to  symphonic  audiences  in 
the  United  States. 

Rimsky-Korsakoff  has  been  active  in  other  fields 
than  composition.  He  became  the  head  of  the  Free 
School  of  Music  in  1874,  where  he  planned  a  mag- 
nificent course  of  instrumentation,  and  led  the  con- 
certs for  many  years.  At  a  later  date  he  became 
assistant  conductor  of  the  Imperial  Orchestra,  and 
for  a  long  time  he  was  leader  of  the  Russian  Sym- 
phony Concerts,  now  conducted  by  Liadoff  and 
Glazounoff.  He  has  travelled  much  in  foreign 
countries,  and  led  many  orchestras  on  these  trips. 
His  work  in  completing  unfinished  compositions 
has  already  been  indicated. 

His  instrumental  compositions  have  won  him  even 
more  fame  than  his  operas.  Of  the  three  sym- 
phonies, the  second,  "  Antar,"  is  a  wonderful  ex- 
ample of  programme  music.  It  is  based  on  the 
old  Arabic  legend  of  the  warrior  Antar,  who  re- 
tires to  the  ruins  of  Palmyra,  full  of  hatred  for  the 


THE  NATIONAL   RUSSIANS  26$ 

race  of  men  who  return  him  evil  for  good.  He 
rescues  a  gazelle  from  a  monster,  and  in  a  vision 
sees  the  fairy  Ghul-Nazal,  Queen  of  Palmyra,  who 
had  been  in  the  form  of  the  gazelle,  and  is  granted 
three  wishes.  All  this  is  portrayed  in  the  first 
movement.  The  second  shows  the  delights  of  re- 
venge, while  the  third  portrays  the  joy  of  power. 
In  the  fourth  movement  the  last  wish,  love,  is 
granted,  and  Antar  returns  to  the  fairy.  But  his 
life  depends  upon  this  love,  and  when,  after  long 
happiness,  he  begins  to  gaze  longingly  at  the  hori- 
zon, she  gives  him  a  last  burning  kiss,  and  he 
expires  in  her  arms. 

"  Scheherezade,"  a  symphonic  poem,  is  rich  in 
Oriental  colouring,  and  its  four  movements  depict 
stories  from  the  Arabian  Nights.  "  Sadko "  is 
another  symphonic  poem,  on  the  same  subject  as  the 
opera.  There  is  also  a  symphonietta,  on  Russian 
themes.  Two  great  overtures  are  frequently  given, 
one  on  popular  tunes,  the  other,  "  The  Russian 
Easter,"  on  church  melodies.  For  orchestra  the 
composer  has  written  also  the  Serb  Fantasie,  a 
Spanish  Caprice,  and  a  Fairy  Legend.  His  piano 
music  includes  a  suite,  on  the  notes  B,  A,  C,  H,  a 
set  of  four  Morceaux  and  another  of  three,  and  six 
fugues.  His  concerto,  dedicated  to  the  memory  of 
Liszt,  is  a  noble  and  dignified  work.  For  voice 


266  MODERN  COMPOSERS  OF  EUROPE 

he  has  written  a  number  of  songs,  the  cantata 
"  Switezianka,"  and  several  a  capella  and  other 
choruses. 

The  position  of  Rimsky-Korsakoff  has  been  well 
stated  by  the  French  critic  Jean  Marnold,  who 
writes :  "  Of  all  the  Slav  composers,  he  is  the  most 
notable,  the  most  charming  in  his  music.  He  has 
not  been  equalled  by  any  of  his  countrymen  in  his 
skill  in  handling  orchestral  colour,  an  art  for  which 
the  Russians  have  long  been  noted.  .  .  .  His  in- 
spiration is  something  exquisite,  and  the  inex- 
haustible transformation  of  his  themes  is  most 
skilful  and  interesting.  Like  other  Russians,  he 
sins  through  lack  of  cohesion  and  unity,  and  espe- 
cially through  a  want  of  true  polyphony.  .  .  .  But 
the  descriptive,  dramatic  intention  is  realized  with 
unusual  surety,  and  the  ease  of  construction,  the 
breadth  and  well-ordered  progression  of  combina- 
tions, show  a  mastery  and  originality  that  are  rarely 
found  among  Northern  composers,  and  that  no  other 
of  the  great  Five  ever  possessed." 


CHAPTER   XII. 

THE   NEW    RUSSIANS 

THE  art  of  music  in  Russia  has  been  almost 
wholly  a  growth  of  the  last  hundred  years.  The 
imperial  theatres  were  founded  in  the  eighteenth 
century,  but  for  a  long  period  they  produced  only 
foreign  works.  There  are  two  of  these  theatres, 
one  in  Moscow  and  one  in  St.  Petersburg,  and  they 
play  an  important  part  in  the  musical  life  of  those 
cities.  The  orchestras  of  both  do  not  confine  them- 
selves to  opera,  but  give  each  year  a  series  of  sym- 
phony concerts,  at  which  new  works  may  be  brought 
out.  The  directors  of  the  St.  Petersburg  organ- 
ization are  Napravnik,  Kruschevsky,  and  Blumen- 
feld,  while  Altani  and  Ivranek  are  the  leaders  in 
Moscow. 

The  Imperial  Russian  Musical  Society  has  been 
another  powerful  influence  in  uplifting  the  standard 
of  music.  It  was  founded  by  Rubinstein  in  1857, 
and  has  grown  steadily  ever  since  that  date,  until 
now  it  consists  of  twenty-one  sections  in  different 

267 


268  MODERN  COMPOSERS  OF  EUROPE 

localities.  The  St.  Petersburg  branch  was  instru- 
mental in  founding  the  conservatory,  while  the 
Moscow  section,  organized  in  1860  by  Nicholas 
Rubinstein,  transformed  the  music-school  of  that 
city  into  another  great  conservatory.  No  less  than 
twelve  other  music-schools  have  been  founded  by 
the  organization  in  various  cities,  and  every  section 
makes  efforts  to  organize  regular  series  of  concerts. 
Sometimes  there  is  no  permanent  orchestra,  and 
players  are  borrowed  from  the  local  theatres.  In 
nearly  all  the  cities  the  larger  concerts  are  supple- 
mented by  a  string  quartette  series. 

There  are  some  private  enterprises  which  have 
been  able  to  win  a  measure  of  success.  The  best 
of  these  is  the  Moscow  Philharmonic  Society,  whose 
conservatory  is  now  firmly  established.  The  St. 
Petersburg  Philharmonic  is  less  important,  but  does 
good  service.  In  the  capital  there  is  also  a  chamber 
music  club,  organized  by  Mitrofan  Belaieff,  which 
gives  four  concerts  during  the  season.  There  are 
as  many  as  four  good  singing  clubs,  those  of  St. 
Anne,  St.  Katharine,  St.  Peter,  and  the  Liedertafel. 
The  Russian  Symphony  Concerts,  founded  by  Be- 
laieff and  conducted  in  part  by  Rimsky-Korsakoff, 
have  become  important  events.  Moscow  possesses 
a  Choral  Union,  led  by  Ippolitoff-Ivanoff,  a  Lieder- 
tafel, and  other  lesser  societies. 


THE  NEW  RUSSIANS  269 

In  Moscow,  too,  is  a  most  excellent  private  opera- 
house,  the  term  private  merely  implying  non-sup- 
port by  the  government  or  the  Imperial  Society. 
Kieff  possesses  a  Literary  and  Artistic  Union  that 
shows  much  activity.  There  are  many  excellent 
operatic  companies  in  various  parts  of  the  empire, 
that  at  Perm  and  the  South  Russian  troupe  of  Prince 
Zeretelli  being  especially  worthy  of  mention.  All 
these  different  organizations,  with  the  Court  Chapel 
at  St.  Petersburg  and  the  Synodal  School  for  Church 
Music  at  Moscow,  afford  new  composers  many 
chances  for  a  hearing. 

Of  the  younger  men  who  have  grown  up  under 
these  conditions,  Alexander  Constantinovitch  Gla- 
zounoff  is  undoubtedly  the  greatest.  Born  at  St. 
Petersburg  on  August  10,  1865,  ne  commenced  to 
study  music  at  the  age  of  nine.  His  first  lessons 
were  in  piano,  but  the  teacher  considerately  added 
some  theory.  Glazounoff  went  to  the  Polytechnic 
Institute,  from  which  he  graduated  at  eighteen.  Son 
of  a  rich  bookseller,  he  was  enabled  to  devote  him- 
self wholly  to  musical  study,  and  had  no  need  to 
adopt  any  more  definite  vocation.  At  the  age  of 
fourteen  he  had  been  placed  under  Rimsky-Korsa- 
koff,  and  four  years  later  he  made  his  first  public 
appearance  as  composer  with  a  symphony.  It  was 


27O  MODERN  COMPOSERS    OF  EUROPE 

the  success  of  this  work  that  decided  him  to  adopt 
a  musical  career. 

It  was  this  symphony,  with  its  instrumentation 
remodelled,  that  was  given  once  in  Weimar,  and 
caused  Liszt  to  congratulate  the  young  composer 
and  predict  a  great  future  for  him.  A  little  later 
he  conducted  his  second  symphony  at  the  Paris 
exposition  of  1889,  and  produced  his  first  sym- 
phonic poem,  "  Stenka  Rasine."  The  latter  is  based 
on  an  old  Volga  legend  of  a  pirate  who  captured 
a  lovely  Persian  princess.  The  music  is  built  on 
three  main  themes,  a  brusque,  savage  motive  for  the 
pirate,  an  entrancing  melody  for  the  princess,  and 
the  constantly  recurring  refrain  of  the  Volga 
sailors. 

The  early  works  of  Glazounoff  show  a  tendency 
to  fantastic  and  imaginative  subjects.  The  haunt- 
ing beauty  of  the  forest,  the  inspiring  charm  of 
spring,  the  compelling  magic  of  the  sea,  the  gor- 
geousness  of  the  Orient,  the  majesty  of  the  historic 
Kremlin,  all  find  an  echo  in  his  great  orchestral 
poems  and  rhapsodies.  His  symphonies  now 
amount  to  seven,  rich  in  harmony  and  full  of  the 
rarest  melodic  beauty.  He  wrote  a  Triumphal 
March  for  the  Chicago  exposition,  and  a  Corona- 
tion Cantata  for  the  Czar.  His  early  overtures  are 
based  on  Greek  themes,  but  the  "  Carnival  "  and  the 


ALEXANDER  CONSTANTINOVITCH  GLAZOUNOFF. 


THE  NEW  RUSSIANS  2? I 

"  Ouverture  Solennelle  "  are  again  in  the  glowing 
style  of  vivid  colouring  to  which  he  has  accustomed 
his  hearers.  In  1899  ne  became  professor  of  in- 
strumentation at  the  St.  Petersburg  conservatory, 
and  he  is  associate  conductor  of  the  Russian  Sym- 
phony Concerts,  but  his  activity  in  composition  re- 
mains undiminished. 

Of  his  eighty  or  more  published  works,  a  large 
proportion  is  for  orchestra.  Besides  those  already 
mentioned,  there  are  ballades,  marches,  suites,  rhap- 
sodies, mazurkas,  an  elegy,  and  other  numbers,  to 
say  nothing  of  songs,  cantatas,  and  instrumental 
melodies  with  orchestral  accompaniment.  For  a 
time  Glazounoff  renounced  his  early  style,  and 
wrote  serious  works  in  German  vein,  but  now  he 
has  become  devoted  to  the  ballet.  As  all  musicians 
know,  this  is  not  merely  a  stage  dance  for  agile 
females,  but  a  real  pantomime,  with  a  definite  plot, 
that  lacks  words,  and  must  therefore  be  all  the 
more  clearly  illustrated  by  the  music.  Such  an  or- 
chestral story  is  told  in  "  Raymonda,"  where  the 
knight  Jean  de  Brienne  bids  farewell  to  his  be- 
trothed, Raymonda,  and  leaves  for  the  Crusades. 
After  his  departure  the  Saracen  Abderrahman  pays 
court  to  her,  and  begs  her  to  become  his  wife. 
Meeting  with  a  refusal,  he  tries  to  run  away  with 
her,  but  Jean  returns  at  the  crucial  moment,  kills 


2?2  MODERN  COMPOSERS  OF  EUROPE 

his  rival  in  single  combat,  and  weds  Raymonda  in 
triumph.  Glazounoff  has  followed  this  with  other 
ballets,  such  as  the  one-act  "  Ruses  d' Amour  "  and 
"  The  Seasons." 

Glazounoff  numbers  among  his  compositions 
many  chamber  works,  of  which  five  quartettes  and 
as  many  novelettes  for  strings  are  the  most  im- 
portant. He  has  written  numerous  piano  pieces, 
including  two  sonatas  in  the  later  opus  numbers. 
Among  his  songs  are  several  with  piano  accom- 
paniment, instead  of  his  favourite  orchestra.  He 
is  certainly  the  greatest  of  all  the  Russians,  with 
the  possible  exception  of  Rimsky-Korsakoff.  He 
handles  his  orchestral  masses  with  skill  and  surety, 
and  understands  the  best  uses  of  modern  instru- 
mental colouring.  He  is  not  carried  away  by  har- 
monic complexity,  but  allows  his  rich  progressions 
to  support  melodies  of  captivating  beauty.  En- 
dowed with  great  imaginative  power  and  real  in- 
spiration, he  still  has  many  years  of  activity  before 
him,  in  which  he  will  doubtless  win  further  laurels. 

Anton  Stepanovitch  Arensky  was  born  at  Nijni- 
Novgorod,  on  July  30,  1861,  and  is,  therefore, 
one  of  the  younger  school.  At  the  age  of  nine, 
without  any  tuition,  he  attempted  to  write  a  string 
quartette.  His  education  was  received  in  St.  Peters- 
burg, where  he  entered  the  conservatory,  and  studied 


ANTON    STEPANOVITCH    ARENSKY. 


THE  NEW  RUSSIANS  273 

under  Rimsky-Korsakoff.  In  1882  he  graduated, 
and  soon  afterward  became  known,  at  Moscow  as 
well  as  St.  Petersburg,  through  a  symphony  and  a 
piano  concerto.  He  was  then  called  to  the  Moscow 
conservatory  as  professor  of  counterpoint.  There 
he  made  his  reputation  as  a  composer  by  producing 
a  grand  opera,  "  A  Dream  on  the  Volga,"  which 
appeared  in  1892.  "  Raphael,"  a  one-act  work,  was 
composed  for  a  reunion  of  the  Artistic  Congress. 
A  ballet  came  later,  "  A  Night  in  Egypt,"  but  Aren- 
sky's  best-known  opera  is  "  Nal  and  Damajanti." 
The  subject  is  taken  from  one  of  the  East  Indian 
epics.  Nal,  or  Nala,  was  a  king  possessed  of  all 
virtues,  but  beset  with  a  passion  for  gambling.  In 
love  with  the  daughter  of  a  neighbouring  king,  the 
beautiful  Damajanti,  he  was  chosen  by  her  as  hus- 
band. The  wicked  god  Kali,  however,  wished  her 
for  his  own.  But  Nala  held  her  in  happiness,  until 
one  day,  after  twelve  years  of  bliss,  he  neglected 
some  rite,  and  Kali  gained  power  over  him.  He 
then  was  induced  to  play  at  dice  with  his  brother 
Pushkara,  and  lost  his  kingdom  and  all  his  posses- 
sions. The  pair  went  into  exile,  but  Nala,  still 
influenced  by  Kali,  deserted  his  wife.  In  the  forest 
he  rescued  a  serpent  from  a  burning  bush,  and  this 
serpent,  a  god  in  disguise,  delivered  him  from  Kali. 
He  became  charioteer  for  another  king,  a  famous 


2/4  MODERN  COMPOSERS  OF  EUROPE 

dicer,  and  when  they  drove  to  Damajanti's  second 
choosing  of  a  husband,  he  exchanged  his  power  of 
horsemanship  for  the  monarch's  luck  at  gambling. 
Again  he  was  chosen  by  Damajanti,  and  his  new 
skill  enabled  him  to  win  back  his  dominions  from 
his  brother.  This  story,  it  will  be  remembered, 
forms  the  subject  of  one  of  Bruch's  latest  works. 

After  some  years  at  Moscow,  Arensky  succeeded 
Balakireff  as  head  of  the  imperial  chapel  at  St. 
Petersburg,  a  post  which  he  in  turn  resigned  after 
a  time.  His  compositions  are  not  confined  to  the 
operatic  stage,  but  include  a  second  symphony;  a 
"  Fantasie  on  Russian  Epic  Chants,"  for  piano  and 
orchestra;  the  music  to  Pushkin's  poem,  "The 
Fountain  of  Bachtschissarai ;  "  a  Memorial  March ; 
three  piano  suites,  of  which  one  has  been  orches- 
trated; a  violin  concerto,  and  several  lesser  pieces 
for  violin.  He  has  grown  to  be  a  composer  of  real 
strength  and  feeling,  and  he  shows  the  influence  of 
Schumann  and  Tschaikowsky,  especially  in  his  piano 
music. 

Sergei  Taneieff  was  not  a  pupil  of  the  national- 
ists, but  came  under  the  influence  of  Tschaikowsky 
and  Nicholas  Rubinstein.  Born  on  November  13, 
1856,  his  first  appearance  before  the  public  was  as 
a  pianist,  and  in  this  capacity  he  received  the  eulogy 
of  all  critics.  He  remained  a  while  in  Paris,  but 


THE  NEW  RUSSIANS  2/5 

returned  to  Moscow,  where  he  joined  the  faculty 
of  the  conservatory.  For  some  time  he  was  director, 
but  now  he  devotes  himself  solely  to  the  teaching 
of  theory.  His  works  include  a  symphony,  several 
string  quartettes,  and  a  number  of  choruses.  In 
1899  he  produced  a  short  opera,  "  The  Vengeance 
of  Cupid,"  but  he  is  most  familiarly  known  as  the 
composer  of  the  "  Oresteia."  This  is  a  musical 
trilogy,  in  eight  tableaux,  based  on  the  tragedies  of 
^schylus.  It  is  a  work  of  much  power  and  sin- 
cerity, and  written  in  a  lofty  and  dignified  style ;  but 
it  is  too  heavy  in  effect  at  times,  and  lacks  the  note 
of  definite  individuality. 

Joseph  Wihtol,  born  at  Wolmar  on  July  14,  1863, 
is  another  follower  of  the  national  movement.  Like 
Arensky,  he  was  a  pupil  of  Rimsky-Korsakoff  in 
composition,  and  Johansen  in  piano.  He  graduated 
from  the  St.  Petersburg  conservatory  in  1886,  a 
winner  of  the  gold  medal.  Since  then  he  has  de- 
voted himself  to  teaching,  and  in  1899  he  became 
harmony  professor  at  the  conservatory.  His  first 
works  are  marked  by  some  youthful  excess  of  effect, 
but  this  is  less  in  evidence  in  his  more  mature  pro- 
ductions. He  has  devoted  himself  to  the  Lett  melo- 
dies with  which  his  early  life  made  him  familiar, 
and  they  appear  in  many  of  his  compositions.  One 
of  these  is  "  La  Fete  Lhigo,"  a  symphonic  picture 


2/6  MODERN  COMPOSERS  OF  EUROPE 

based  on  popular  Lett  themes,  while  others  are 
in  his  collection  of  folk-melodies.  One  of  his  later 
works  is  an  orchestral  suite,  based  on  the  same  mate- 
rial. A  "  Dramatic  Overture  "  shows  many  excel- 
lent qualities,  and  an  E-Minor  Symphony,  in  manu- 
script, and  the  "  Bard  of  Beverin,""  for  chorus  and 
orchestra,  are  other  important  works.  Wihtol  has 
composed  many  piano  pieces  and  male  choruses. 

Anatole  Liadoff,  born  at  St.  Petersburg-  in  1855, 
is  another  conservatory  graduate,  returning  to  the 
institution  as  harmony  professor  in  1878.  He  has 
also  been  connected  with  the  imperial  chapel,  and 
since  1894  he  has  been  the  associate  of  Rimsky- 
Korsakoff  and  Glazounoff  in  conducting  the  con- 
certs of  the  Musical  Society.  His  orchestral  works 
are  not  numerous,  the  chief  among  them  being  a 
scherzo,  a  mazurka,  and  a  choral  finale  for  Schiller's 
"  Braut  von  Messina."  His  piano  compositions, 
however,  are  more  plentiful,  and  their  brilliancy  and 
originality  have  made  him  widely  known.  Among 
them  are  an  attractive  series  entitled  "  Birioulki," 
and  a  set  of  "  Arabesques." 

Nicolai  Stcherbatcheff  is  another  composer  who 
has  devoted  his  attention  almost  wholly  to  the 
piano.  Son  of  a  wealthy  nobleman,  he  received  an 
excellent  education,  and  travelled  in  many  lands 
with  his  parents.  At  Weimar  he  became  a  pupil  of 


THE  NEW  RUSSIANS  2-TJ 

Liszt,  and  turned  from  execution  to  composition. 
His  orchestral  works  include  a  Serenade  and  two 
Idylls,  but  nearly  all  his  other  compositions  are 
songs  or  piano  pieces.  He  has  written  some  ex- 
cellent settings  of  Tolstoi  and  Heine,  but  his  pecul- 
iar qualities  show  best  in  the  piano  works.  He  is 
full  of  striking  ideas,  which  he  can  express  with 
passionate  power,  but  his  free  fancy  leads  him  at 
times  into  excessive  and  unnecessary  audacity. 
His  "  Fairy  Scenes  and  Pantomimes  "  are  delight- 
fully charming,  while  his  "  Fantasies  fitudes,"  more 
classical  in  style,  show  the  influence  of  Schumann. 
Sergei  Rachmaninoff  is  one  of  a  younger  genera- 
tion, but  has  already  won  an  enviable  position. 
Born  in  1873,  in  Novgorod,  his  earliest  lessons 
were  given  to  him  by  his  mother.  At  nine,  he 
entered  the  St.  Petersburg  conservatory,  but  was 
afterward  transferred  to  Moscow,  where  he  studied 
piano  with  Siloti,  and  composition  with  Arensky. 
For  so  young  a  man,  he  has  been  remarkably  pro- 
ductive. Among  his  larger  works,  de  longue  haleine, 
as  he  puts  it  in  a  letter  to  the  author,  are  two 
piano  concertos,  two*  four-hand  suites,  a  piano 
trio,  a  'cello  sonata,  a  symphony,  a  symphonic 
poem,  a  Bohemian  Caprice  for  orchestra,  and 
the  cantata  "  Spring,"  with  chorus  and  baritone. 
His  lesser  works  include  about  thirty  piano  pieces 


MODERN  COMPOSERS  OF  EUROPE 


and  nearly  forty  songs.  He  has  entered  the  ope- 
ratic field  with  "  The  Bohemians  "  and  "  The  Ava- 
ricious Knight,"  both  on  poems  by  Pushkin,  and 
a  third  dramatic  work,  "  Francesca  da  Rimini," 
should  be  ready  for  production  by  1905. 

Edward  Napravnik,  born  at  Bejst  in  1839,  is  not 
a  Russian,  but  a  Bohemian.  In  1861,  however,  he 
was  brought  to  St.  Petersburg  by  Price  Yussupoff, 
and  his  long  career  in  that  city  has  made  him  prac- 
tically a  citizen  of  the  empire.  He  has  been  organ- 
ist, conductor  of  the  Russian  opera,  and  leader  of 
the  Musical  Society  concerts.  His  own  operas, 
which  have  met  with  decided  success,  are  "  The 
People  of  Nijni-Novgorod,"  "  Harold,"  "  Dubroff- 
sky,"  and  "  Francesca  da  Rimini."  He  has  also 
written  the  overture  "  Vlasta,"  three  symphonies, 
including  "  The  Demon,"  a  concerto  and  a  Russian 
Fantasie  for  piano  and  orchestra,  and  many  lesser 
instrumental  works. 

Another  composer  prominent  in  the  operatic  field 
is  Nicolai  Solovieff.  Born  in  1846,  he  graduated 
from  the  St.  Petersburg  conservatory,  where  he  has 
been  a  professor  of  theory  since  1874.  As  a  stu- 
dent, he  took  the  composition  prize  with  his  cantata 
"  The  Death  of  Samson,"  and  he  made  himself 
known  later  by  an  overture  and  the  symphonic  poem 
"  Russians  and  Mongols."  His  operas  include 


THE  NEW  RUSSIANS  2?$ 

"Vakula  the  Smith,"  "The  Little  House,"  and 
"  Cordelia."  These,  however,  were  not  remarkably 
successful,  as  Solovieff  is  somewhat  too  restrained 
in  expression  for  best  stage  effects.  He  has  written 
a  number  of  lesser  works,  and  he  finished  "  The 
Demon's  Power  "  after  the  death  of  its  composer, 
Seroff. 

Ippblitoff-Ivanoff,  so  active  in  the  musical  life 
of  Moscow,  has  won  some  success  as  a  composer, 
also.  His  "  Caucasian  Suite  "  and  "  Characteristic 
Suite  "  are  pleasing  works,  while  in  opera  he  has 
produced  "  Ruth  "  and  "  The  Asra."  His  "  Asia," 
a  set  of  lyric  scenes  recently  given,  was  remark- 
ably well  received.  Like  Taneieff,  he  follows  Tschai- 
kowsky  in  writing  music  that  is  not  essentially 
national  in  flavour.  Michael  Ivanoff,  another  com- 
poser of  the  same  name,  but  not  related,  has  been 
decidedly  prolific,  having  produced  the  ballet  "  The 
Vestal,"  two  operas,  "  Sabawa  "  and  "  The  Feast 
of  Potemkin,"  a  symphony,  the  symphonic  pro- 
logue "  Savonarola,"  a  triumphal  overture,  two 
suites,  a  requiem,  incidental  music  for  "  Medea," 
and  the  usual  variety  of  lesser  works.  Boris  Scheel, 
whose  real  name  is  said  to  be  Vietinghoff,  is  another 
fecund  composer  of  operas,  while  George  Kasa- 
tschenko  has  produced  orchestral  fantasies  and 
cantatas  as  well  as  the  opera  "  Prince  Serebreny." 


280  MODERN  COMPOSERS   OF  EUROPE 

Among  other  followers  of  the  national  movement, 
Nicolai  Sokoloff  has  written  the  music  for  Tol- 
stoi's "  Don  Juan,"  an  orchestral  elegy,  string  sere- 
nades, and  other  chamber  works.  Achille  Alpheraki 
has  composed  a  dozen  piano  pieces,  but  is  better 
known  by  his  songs.  Alexander  Kopyloff  has  pro- 
duced a  symphony,  an  orchestral  scherzo,  and  sev- 
eral choruses.  Constantine  Antipoff  is  responsible 
for  an  allegro  and  three  melodies  for  orchestra,  but 
is  more  renowned  for  the  thorough  and  original 
excellence  of  his  piano  music.  Felix  Blumenfeld 
is  famous  for  the  same  reason,  and  his  brother  Sigis- 
mund  has  also  worked  in  this  field.  Borislav  Grod- 
sky  has  written  for  voice,  violin,  and  'cello,  as  well 
as  piano.  Gretschaninoff  is  known  by  his  expres- 
sive chamber  and  piano  music,  and  some  excellent 
a  capella  choruses. 

Alexander  Scriabine  is  one  of  the  best  of  the 
younger  symphonists.  A  pupil  of  Safonoff  and 
Taneieff  at  the  Moscow  conservatory,  he  has  made 
many  piano  tours  in  Europe,  and  written  much  for 
his  instrument.  For  orchestra  he  has  composed  two 
symphonies,  a  concerto,  and  a  Reverie.  Henri 
Pachulski  is  another  of  the  young  piano  composers 
who  is  becoming  known,  and  his  recent  orchestral 
suite  marks  a  more  ambitious  style.  Sergei  Lia- 
pounoff  has  composed  a  concerto,  a  Ballade,  a  sym- 


THE  NEW  RUSSIANS  28 1 

phony,  and  an  Ouverture  Solennelle  for  orchestra, 
besides  numerous  piano  works.  Victor  Ewald  has 
devoted  himself  chiefly  to  chamber  music.  Kalin- 
nikoff  produced  two  worthy  symphonies,  a  suite, 
and  two  symphonic  pictures,  "  The  Nymphs  "  and 
"  The  Cedar  and  the  Palm,"  before  his  untimely 
death  in  1901.  Rebikoff  is  another  young  man  who 
is  rapidly  winning  fame,  and  his  new  mimodrame, 
"  Genius  and  Death,"  has  charmed  its  audiences, 
though  sometimes  bizarre  and  chromatic  in  char- 
acter. Conus,  Zolotareff,  Lissenko,  Artsiboutcheff, 
Akimenko,  and  many  others,  are  entering  the  lists, 
and  the  new  Russian  composers  are  growing  in 
numbers  as  well  as  in  excellence. 

There  are  many  reasons  for  the  worthy  quali- 
ties of  the  Russian  school  of  music.  The  growth 
of  concerts  and  conservatories  is  one  factor  of  im- 
portance, but  this  giving  of  the  opportunity  to 
develop  does  not  of  itself  produce  real  glory  in 
art,  or  else  England  and  America  would  have  more 
distinctive  schools  of  their  own.  There  must  be 
an  inherent  love  of  music  in  the  race,  and  this  the 
Slav  certainly  possesses.  The  life  of  the  peasant 
is  made  less  harsh  by  the  sweetness  of  his  folk- 
songs, and  a  nation  that  can  boast  of  these  will 
always  be  able  to  develop  the  more  cultivated  style 
of  music  when  the  chance  arises. 


282  MODERN  COMPOSERS   OF  EUROPE 

In  Russia,  there  is  still  another  reason  for  the 
wide-spread  devotion  to  music.  Under  the  strict 
censorship  of  its  corrupt  government  bureaucracy, 
free  speech  is  repressed,  and  free  thought  even  dis- 
couraged. The  Russians,  however,  are  a  race  gifted 
with  imagination  and  feeling,  and  this  must  find  its 
expression  in  some  way.  If  literary  freedom  is 
checked,  the  people  may  turn  to  music  with  re- 
doubled intensity. 

There  seems  little  doubt  that  Russia  is  to-day 
the  leader  of  the  world  in  music.  While  Wagner 
to  some  extent  checked  development  in  Germany, 
because  his  great  achievements  were  difficult  to  equal, 
the  national  school  in  Russia,  working  along  simi- 
lar lines,  has  made  an  advance  that  is  shared  in  by 
all  her  composers,  and  that  is  leading  to  continually 
new  progress.  The  wealth  of  her  folk-lore  and 
poetic  legends  is  an  added  incentive,  and  the  material 
has  all  the  charm  of  novelty  for  the  nations  of  West- 
ern Europe.  Germany  still  has  much  to  say,  but  it 
is  not  so  entirely  new;  France  has  gone  astray  for 
the  moment  in  a  maze  of  weird  harmonic  effects; 
Italy,  but  just  awakened  from  a  long  sleep,  has 
hardly  mastered  the  new  musical  language;  Eng- 
land and  the  Netherlands  are  almost  too  civilized 
for  the  best  results;  Bohemia  has  lost  some  of  her 
greatest  leaders,  while  in  Norway  Grieg  belongs 


THE  NEW  RUSSIANS  283 

almost  to  a  past  generation.  Russia,  however,  is 
at  the  height  of  her  activity,  and  in  the  next  few 
years  the  Western  world,  already  familiar  with 
some  of  her  triumphs,  will  probably  be  forced  to 
grant  her  the  homage  due  to  the  most  musical  nation 
in  the  world. 


THE   END. 


INDEX 


Achillti,  76. 

Adalbert,  91. 

Akerberg,  Erik,  235. 

Akimenko,  281. 

Albeniz,  182. 

Albest,  Heinrich  Kaan  von,  112. 

Alfv^n,  Hugo,  234. 

Allitsen,  Frances,  223. 

Allon,  Erskine,  221. 

Alpheraky,  Achille,  280. 

Also  Sprach  Zarathustra,  IO,  1 6. 

Andree,  Elfrida,  236. 

Andersen,  Joachim,  240. 

Antar,  264. 

Antipoff,  Constantino,  280. 

Antony  and  Cleopatra,  138. 

Apostles,  The,  208. 

Arensky,  Anton,  272-274. 

Arnest,  91. 

Artsiboutcheff,  281. 

Ascanio,  1 18. 

Ash  ton,  Algernon,  220. 

Attendet-Moi  Sous  I'Orme,  140. 

Attrup,  240. 

Aulin,  Tor,  235. 

Aulin,  Valborg,  236. 

Aus  der  Neuen  Welt,  105. 

Aus  Italien,  8,  n. 

Averkamp,  201. 

Backer-Grohndahl,  Agathe,  230. 
Bainton,  Edgar,  222. 
Balakireff,  Mily,  249-252. 


Baldur's  Tod,  74. 

Bantock,  Granville,  221. 

Barbarossa,  29—31. 

Barblan,  Otto,  44. 

Barnett,  J.  F.,  218. 

Bartered  Bride,  The,  96. 

Baussnern,  Waldemar  von,  89. 

Beatitudes,  The,  133. 

Becker,  Reinhold,  90. 

Beekman,  Bror,  235. 

Bendix,  Victor,  240. 

Benoit,  Peter,  184-187. 

Berger,  Wilhelm,  47. 

Berlioz,  Hector,  3. 

Blake,  Ernest,  222. 

Blanik,  99. 

Blech,  Leo,  89. 

Blockx,  Jan,  195-198. 

Blumenfeld,  Felix,  280. 

Blumenfeld,  Sigismund,  280. 

Bohemia's  Groves  and  Meadows, 

99. 

Boito,  Arrigo,  163,  164. 
Borodin,  Alexander,  257-261. 
Bossi,    Marco    Enrico,    161,   177, 

178. 

Boughton,  Rutland,  222. 
Bourgault-Ducoudray,  1 58. 
Bowen,  York,  222. 
Bozan,  91. 
Brandenburgers  in  Bohemia,  The, 

95- 
Brandt-Buys,  201. 


286 


INDEX 


Bridge,  Sir  J.  Frederic,  217. 
Bridge,  Joseph  Cox,  217. 
Bridges,  Robert,  220. 
Brixi,  91. 

Bronsart,  Hans  von,  58. 
Bruch,  Max,  56,  57. 
Bruder  Lustig,  83. 
Briill,  Ignaz,  85,  86. 
Bruneau,  Alfred,  146-149. 
Billow,  Hans  von,  7. 
Bungert,  August,  76-79. 
Bunning,  Herbert,  220. 
Buongiorno,  179-181. 

Caligari,  Bishop,  161. 

Catalani,  169. 

Cavalier ia  Rusticana,  1 66. 

Cendrillon,  127. 

Cenerentola,  181. 

Cernohorsky,  91. 

Chabrier,  Alexis  Emmanuel,  143- 

146. 

Chaminade,  Cecile,  159. 
Charpentier,  Gustave,  149-153. 
Chausson,  Ernest,  155,  156. 
Cilea,  1 68. 

Cliffe,  Frederick,  220. 
Coerne,  L.  A.,  54. 
Coleridge-Taylor,   Samuel,   210- 

212. 

Collan,  Karl,  242. 
Combe,  Edward,  45. 
Conus,  281. 
Coquard,  Arthur,  158. 
Corder,  Frederick,  218. 
Coronaro,  168. 

Cowen,  Frederic  Hymen,  215. 
Cox,  Garnet  Wolseley,  222. 
Crusell,  Bernard,  241. 
Cui  Cesar,  252-255. 
Cybulovsky,  91. 
Czar's  Bride,  The,  263. 

D' Albert,  Eugen,  83-85. 
Dalibor,  97. 
Danse  Macabre,  121. 
Dargomishky,  249. 
Das  Mddchenherz,  179. 


Da  Venezia,  Franco,  159. 

3e  Boisdeffre  Rene,  158. 

De  Breville,  Pierre,  1 58. 

De  Haans,  201. 

De  Lara,  182. 

De  Ropartz,  Guy,  158. 

Debussy,    Achille   Claude,    153- 

1.55- 
Dejamre,  119. 

Del  Valle  de  Paz,  Edgar  do,  177. 
Denereaz,  A.,  45. 
Der  Bdrenhduter,  80. 
Der  Corregidor,  87. 
Der  Evangelimann,  69. 
Der  Improvisator,  85. 
Der  Kobold,  82. 
Der  Pfeifertag,  72. 
Devil's  Wall,  The,  98. 
Di  Pirani,  Eugenio,  177. 
Die  Abreise,  84. 
Die  Kriegsgefangene,  65. 
Die  Versunkene  Glocke,  89. 
Diepenbrock,  Alphonse,  201. 
Dimitri,  102. 

D'Indy,  Vincent,  137-143. 
Dionysiac  Fantasie,  29. 
Dohnanyi,  Ernst  von,  113. 
Don  Cesar  de  Bazan,  124. 
Don  Juan,  8,  13. 
Don  Quixote,  Strauss,  10,  17. 
Don  Quixote,  Kienzl,  70. 
Dopper,  Cora,  201. 
Doppler,  112. 
Doret,  Gustave,  44. 
Dorn,  Otto,  58. 
Dream  of  Gerontius,  The,  207. 
Dubois,  Theodore,  157. 
Dukas,  Paul,  158. 
Duparc,  Henri,  158. 
Dupont,  Gabriel,  159. 
Dupuis,  199. 
Dussek,  92. 
Dvorak,  Antonin,  100-107. 

Edgar,  171. 

Ehrstrom,  F.  A.,  242. 

Ein  Heldenleben,  10,  18. 

Ein  Sommermorgentraum,  35. 


287 


Rine  Steppenskizze,  259. 

Elgar,  Edward  William,  203-210. 

Elysian  Fields,  The,  41. 

Enna,  August,  236-240. 

Erikssohn,  J.,  236. 

Erkel,  Alexander,  112. 

Erkel,  Franz,  112. 

Erlanger,  Camilla,  159. 

Esclarmonde,  126. 

Eulenspiegel,  74. 

Eve,  123. 

Ewald,  Victor,  281. 

Faltin,  Richard,  243. 

Faure,  Gabriel,  157. 

Fervaal,  140. 

Feuersnoth,  10,  21. 

Fibich,  Zdenko,  107-110. 

Filiasi,  Lorenzo,  159. 

Folville,  Juliette,  199. 

Frances ca  da  Rimini,  189. 

Franchetti,  Alberto,  169,  170. 

Franciscus,  193. 

Franck,  Cesar  Auguste,  132-136. 

Franck,  Richard,  44. 

Ganz,  Rudolph,  44. 

Gatty,  Nicholas,  223. 

Geijer,  Gb'sta,  235. 

Geisler,  Paul,  58. 

Genesius,  39,  40. 

Genetz,  Emil,  244. 

German,  Edward,  218,  219. 

Gernot,  84. 

Gernsheim,  Fredrich,  51. 

Ghisella,  135. 

Ghismonda,  84. 

Gilson,  Paul,  187-190. 

Giordano,  Umberto,  168. 

Glazounoff,  Alexander,  269-272. 

Gleits,  Karl,  58. 

Glinka,  Michael,  248. 

Goldmark,  Carl,  60-66. 

Greek  Composers,  181. 

Grellinger,  201. 

Gretschaninoff,  280. 

Greve,  Conrad,  242. 

Grey,  Alan,  220. 


rieg,    Edward    Hagerup,    224- 

227. 

Griselidis,  127. 
Grodsky,  Borislav,  280. 
Gugeline,  88. 

Guilmant,  Alexandre,  158. 
Guntram,  8,  20. 
Gwendoline,  144. 

Hagg,  Gustav,  235. 

Hansel  and  Gretel,  66. 

Haeser,  Georg,  44. 

Hallen,  Anders,  230—232. 

Hausegger,  Siegmund  von,  27-33. 

Hawley,  Stanley,  222. 

Heilmar  der  Narr,  68. 

Heimchen  am  Herd,  64. 

Helene,  120. 

Helfried,  28. 

Hendriks,  201. 

Henry  VIII.,  118. 

Henschel,  Georg,  48. 

Herbergsprinses,  196. 

Herodiade,  125. 

Hervey,  Arthur,  220. 

Herzog  Wildfang,%>\. 

Hiawatha,  211. 

Hinton,  Arthur,  222. 

Hnilicka,  92. 

Hoi,  Richard,  199. 

Hornemann,  Emil,  240. 

Huber,  Hans,  42-44. 

Huberti,  199. 

Hue,  Georges,  159. 

ffulda,  134. 

Humperdinck,  Engelbert,  66-68. 

/  Pagliacci,  167. 

//  Cuor  delle  Fanciulle,  179. 

Impressions  d'ltalie,  150. 

Ingelius,  A.  G.,  242. 

Ingwelde,  71. 

Ippolitoff-Ivanoff,  279. 

Istar,  139. 

Ivanoff,  Michael,  279. 

Jarnefelt,  Armas,  243. 
Jaques-Dalcroze,  E.,  44. 


288 


INDEX 


Jean  Hunyadi,  138. 

Jelinek,  92. 

Joachim,  Josef,  58. 

Jones,  German  Edward,  218,  219. 

Jyrovec,  92. 

Kahn,  Robert,  52. 

Kain,  85. 

Kajanus,  Robert,  243. 

Kalinnikoff,  281. 

Kalliwoda,  92. 

Karadec,  140. 

Kasatschenko,  George,  279. 

Kaun,  Hugo,  46. 

Kempter,  Lothar,  45. 

Keurvels,  198. 

Kienzl,  Wilhelm,  68-71. 

King  Lear,  41. 

King  Olaf,  206. 

Kirke,  77. 

Kiss,  The,  96. 

Kistler,  Cyrill,  73-76. 

Klokke,  Roland,  193. 

Klose,  E.,  89. 

Klughardt,  August,  55. 

Klytemnestra,  76. 

Kocvara,  92. 

Kbnig  und  Kbhler,  101. 

Koessler,  Hans,  45. 

Kopriva,  92. 

Kopyloff,  Alexander,  280. 

Kozeluch,  91. 

Kretschmer,  Edmund,  89. 

Krohn,  Ilmari,  244. 

Kulenkampf,  Gustav,  89. 

Kunihild,  73. 

L'Attaque  du  Moulin,  146. 

L1  Stranger,  141. 

L'Ourag-an,  147. 

La  Bohtme,  172. 

La  Cabrera,  159. 

La  Chevauchee  du  Cid,  138. 

La    Couronnement   de   la    Muse, 

151. 

La  For  it  Enchant fe,  139. 
La  Grand1  Tante,  124. 
La  Jtunesse  d'Hercule,  121. 


La  Mer,  188. 

La  Navarraise,  127. 

La  Princes  se  Jaune,  1 1 8. 

La  Statue,  130. 

La  Terre  Promise,  124. 

La  Vie  du  Poete,  1 50. 

La  Vierge,  124. 

Larrocha,  182. 

Lauber,  Joseph,  44. 

Le  Chant  de  la  Cloche,  138. 

Le  Chasseur  Maudit,  134. 

Le  Cid,  125. 

Le  Deluge,  118. 

Le  Donne  Curiose,  181. 

Le   Jongleur    de    Notre    Dame, 

127. 

Le  Mage,  127. 
Le  Portrait  de  Manon,  127. 
Le  Reve,  146. 
Le  Roi  Arthus,  156. 
Le  Roi  de  Lahore,  \  24. 
Le  Roi  Malgri  Lui,  144. 
Le  Rouet  d'Omphale,  1 2 1. 
Le  Timbre  d1  Argent,  1 18. 
Le  Valet  de  Ferme,  1 33. 
Le  Villi,  170. 
Lefebvre,  Charles,  158. 
Lehmann,  Liza,  223. 
Lekeu,  Guillaume,  190-192. 
Lenaerts,  198. 

Leoncavallo,  Ruggiero,  166-168. 
Les  Bar  bares,  119. 
Les  Burgraves,  140. 
Les  Djinns,  134. 
Les  E  elides,  134. 
Liadoff,  Anatole,  276. 
Liapounoff,  Sergei,  280 
Libusa,  98. 
Liddle,  Samuel,  220. 
Liliefors,  Ruben,  236. 
Linsen,  Gabriel,  243. 
Lissenko,  281. 
Liszt,  Franz,  4. 
Lloyd,  Charles  H.,  218. 
Lonnrot,  Elias,  241. 
Louise,  151. 
Lucas,  Clarence,  222. 
Lundberg,  L.,  236. 


INDEX 


289 


Ma  Vlast,  98. 
Macbeth,  8,  12. 
MacCunn,  Hamish,  220. 
Macfarren,  Walter  Cecil,  218. 
Mackenzie,  Alex.    Campbell, 

214- 

Macpherson,  Stewart,  220. 
Madame  Butterfly,  173. 
Mahler,  Gustav,  33-38. 
Mailing,  Otto,  240. 
Mancinelli,  169. 
Mann,  Gottfried,  201. 
Manon,  125. 
Manon  Lescaut,  171. 
Marie  Madeleine,  123. 
Marsick,  199. 
Martucci,  Giuseppe,  176. 
Mascagni,  Pietro,  165,  166. 
Massenet,  Jules,  122-130. 
Mathieu,  Emile,  199. 
McAlpin,  Colin,  222. 
Mtdie,  140. 
Mefistofele,  163. 
Melartin,  Erik,  244. 
Merikanti,  Oskar,  244. 
Merlin,  63. 
Messidor,  147. 

Michelangelo  and  Rolla,  \  80. 
Mielck,  Ernest,  244. 
Mihalovitch,  112. 
M6hring,  K.  J.,  242. 
Mortelmans,  198. 
Moszkowski,  Moritz,  55,  56. 
Moussorgsky,  Modest,  255-257. 
Munktell,  Helen,  236. 
Myslivecek,  92. 

Nal  and  Damajanti,  273. 
Napravnik,  Edward,  278. 
Naturleben,  36. 
Nausikaa,  78. 
Nedbal,  Oscar,  112. 
Nero,  164. 
Nesvera,  Josef,  112. 
New  World  Symphony,  105. 
Nicode',  Jean  Louis,  49. 
Niggli,  Fritz,  44. 
Nodermann,  P.,  235. 


Sfoguerra,  182. 
Slovak,  91. 

Odysseus  Heimkehr,  78. 

Odysseus  Tod,  79. 

Olsen,  Ole,  230. 

Oosterzee,  Cornelia  van,  201. 

Orefice,  169. 

Oresteia,  The,  275. 

Orestes,  39. 

Pachulski,  Henri,  280. 

Pacius,  Fredrik,  242. 

Paderewski,  114. 

Palmgren,  Selim,  244. 

Paradise  Lost,  Bossi,  178. 

Paradise  Lost,  Dubois,  157. 

Parratt,  Walter,  218. 

Parry,  Charles  H.  H.,  213. 

Parysatis,  119. 

Patria,  Fides,  Amor,  182. 

Pedrell,  Felipe,  182. 

Pelleas  and  Melisande,  155. 

Perosi,  Don  Lorenzo,  161-163. 

Peterson-Berger,  Wilhelm,  234. 

Pfitzner,  Hans,  89. 

Phaeton,  121. 

Phtdre,  124. 

Phryne,  119. 

Pichl,  92. 

Pierne,  Gabriel,  158. 

Pinelli,  174. 

Pokorny,  92. 

Ponchielli,  169. 

Pritchard,  C.  E.,  222. 

Prince  Igor,  260. 

Proserpine,  118. 

Psyche,  134. 

Puccini,  Giacomo,  170-174. 

Puchat,  Max,  58. 

Queen  of  Sheba,  The,  62. 

Rachmaninoff,  Sergei,  277. 
Raway,  199. 
Raymonda,  271. 
Rebecca,  134. 


290 


INDEX 


Rebikoff,  281. 
Redemption,  The,  134. 
Reed,  W.  H.,  222. 
Reinecke,  Karl,  48. 
Rennes,  Catharina  van,  201. 
Reuss,  August,  58. 
Reyer,  Ernest,  130,  131. 
Reznicek,  Emil  N.  von,  no,  in. 
Rheinberger,  Josef,  54. 
Rimsky-Korsakoff,  Nicolai,  261- 

266. 

Ritter,  Alexander,  7. 
Rontgen,  Julius,  200. 
Roslein  im  Hag,  75. 
Roskosny,  112. 
Rossi,  Cesare,  168. 
Ruby,  The,  84. 
Rubinstein,  249. 
Russian  Church  Music,  247. 
Russian  Folk-Music,  246. 
Russian  Music,  281-283. 
Russian  Musical  Life,  267-269. 
Russian  Opera,  Early,  248. 
Ruth,  133. 
Ruzsicska,  112. 
Ryba,  92. 

Sadko,  262. 

Saint  Ludmila,  104. 

Saint-Saens,  Charles  -  C  a  m  i  1 1  e, 

115-122. 

Sainte  Godelive,  194. 
Sakellarines,  Theophilus,  182. 
Sakuntala,  61. 
Salammbt),  131. 
Samara,  Spiro,  181. 
Samson  and  Dalila,  1 1 8. 
Sarka,  99. 
Satter,  Gustav,  59. 
Saugefleurie,  139. 
Scandinavian  Symphony,  216. 
Scenes  Pittoresques,  124. 
Schaefer,  201. 
Schantz,  Filip  von,  242. 
Scharwenka,  Franz  Xaver,  57. 
Scharwenka,  Ludwig  Philipp,  57. 
Scheel,  Boris,  279. 
Schey,  Julius,  201. 


Schillings,  Max,  71,  72. 
Schjelderup,  Gerhard,  230. 
Schumann,  Georg  Alfred,  50. 
Schytte,  Ludwig,  240. 
Scott,  Cyril,  222. 
Scriabine,  Alexander,  238. 
Secret,  The,  96. 
Seroff,  249. 

Sgambati,  Giovanni,  174-176. 
Sibelius,  Jean,  244,  245. 
Sigurd,  131. 
Sinding,  Christian,  230. 
Sinfonia  Domestica,  10,  20. 
Sjogren,  Emil,  232. 
Skojowsky,  91. 
Skraup,  Frantisek,  92,  93. 
Smetana,  Bedrich,  93-100. 
Smulders,  201. 
Sokoloff,  Nicolai,  280. 
Solovieff,  Nicolai,  278. 
Soltys,  114. 

Somervell,  Arthur,  220. 
Sonzogno  Prize,  159,  164. 
Spanish  Composers,  182. 
Spectre's  Bride,  The,  103. 
Spinelli,  168. 
Stalkowsky,  114. 
Stanford,  Charles  Villiers,  212. 
Stcherbatcheff,  Nicolai,  276. 
Steggall,  Reginald,  222. 
Stenhammar,  Wilhelm,  233. 
Strauss,  Richard,  1-26. 

Precocity  of,  5. 

Education  of,  6. 

At  Meiningen,  7. 

At  Munich,  8,  9. 

At  Weimar,  8. 

At  Berlin,  9. 

Personal  Description,  9,  10. 

F- Minor  Symphony,  n. 

Other  Works,  see  Titles. 

Criticism  of,  22-24. 

Songs,  etc.,  25. 
Strauss,  Mme.  Pauline,  8,  9. 
Suk,  Josef,  in. 
Suter,  Hermann,  44. 
Svendsen,   Johann  Severin,  228, 

229. 


INDEX 


291 


Swiss  Composers,  42-45. 
Symphonic  Poems,  3,  24,  42. 

Tabor,  99. 

Tamara,  251. 

Taneieff,  Sergei,  274. 

Tasca,  168. 

Tegner,  Alice,  236. 

Thais,  127. 

Thieriot,  Ferdinand,  53. 

Thomas,  Arthur  Goring,  216. 

Thuille,  Ludwig,  58,  88. 

Thy  I  Ulyenspiegel,  197. 

Tiefland,  85. 

Till  Eulenspiegel,  Reznicek,  in. 

Till  Eulenspiegel,  Strauss,  10,  15. 

Tinel,  Edgar,  192-195. 

Tod  und  Verklarung,  8,  14. 

Tomasek,  92. 

Torchi,  Luigi,  163. 

Tosca,  172. 

Tschaikowsky,  249. 

Tussenbrock,  Hendrika  van,  201. 

Two  Widows,  The,  96. 

Urvasi,  68. 

Van  Den  Eeden,  198. 
Van  Duyse,  198. 
Van  Milligen,  201. 
Van  t'  Kruys,  200. 
Variations,  Elgar,  207. 
Verdi,  Giuseppe,  164. 
Vita  Nuova,  181. 
Vives,  182. 
Vleeshouwer,  198. 


Vletbad,  Patrik,  236 
Vltava,  98. 
Vorisek,  92. 
Vysehrad,  98. 

Waelput,  199. 

Wagenaar,  201. 

Wagner,  Richard,  i,  3,  4,  66. 

Wagner,  Siegfried,  80-83. 

Wallace,  William,  221. 

Wallenstein,  138. 

Wambach,  198. 

Wasenius,  Karl  Gustaf,  242. 

Wegelius,  Martin,  243. 

Weingartner,  Felix,  38—42. 

Werther,  127. 

Widor,  Charles  Marie,  157. 

Wieland  der  Schmied,  32. 

Wihtol,  Joseph,  275. 

Williams,  Charles  Lee,  218. 

Winderstein,  Hans,  59. 

Winding,  August,  240. 

Woikowsky-Biedau,  Hector  von, 

90. 

Wolf,  Hugo,  86-88. 
Wolf -Ferrari,  181. 
Wood,  Charles,  220. 

Ysaye,  199. 

Zarzuela,  182. 
Zichy,  Geza,  113. 
Zinnober,  28. 
Zollner,  Heinrich,  89. 
Zolotareff,  281. 
Zweers,  Bernard,  201. 


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